Redeemers (65 page)

The fatal encounter between the poet José Santos Chocano and the young intellectual Edwin Elmore was recorded by his colleagues, including Mariátegui, in issue no. 3 of
Amauta
. The quarrels about Vasconcelos are documented in “Poetas y bufones,” in the
Obras completas de José Santos Chocano
(Aguilar, Madrid, 1972), and reconstructed by José Emilio Pacheco in “Leopoldo Lugones y el amor en la hora de la espada,”
Letras Libres
, no. 10, October 1999.

The famous speech of Manuel González Prada is available at http://es.wikisource.org/wiki/Discurso_en_el_Politeama; and the writings of María Wiesse and Aníbal Quijano treat the influence of González Prada on Mariátegui and Haya de la Torre. The period that Mariátegui called his “stone age” (his connections with Abraham Valdelomar, the magazine
Colónida
, and his work for various newspapers) is described by his biographers, especially Guillermo Rouillon. It is the time when he first turns his attention to Rumi Maqui, for which see
La utopía arcaica: José María Arguedas y las ficciones del indigenismo
, by Mario Vargas Llosa (FCE, Mexico, 1996).

The influences upon him (and Mariátegui's insights) in Europe, first in Paris and then in Italy, are treated in his
La escena contemporánea
(
O.C.,
vol. 1, Amauta, Lima, 1957), where he discusses his aesthetic and moral reactions to fascism, World War I, and his encounters with (among others) Barbusse, Sorel, and Rolland, whose ideas deeply impressed him. These years are also presented in his
Cartas de Italia
(
O.C.
, vol. 15, Amauta, Lima, 1969). The quotation from Richard M. Morse is from
El espejo de próspero. Un estudio de la dialéctica del nuevo mundo
(Siglo XXI, Mexico, 1982). Also during this time, Mariátegui began to develop his particular form of Marxism: see his
Defensa del marxismo
(
O.C.,
vol. 5, Amauta, Lima, 1959), in which he also describes his intellectual contacts with Croce, Gentile, and Gramsci. From his
Cartas de Italia
, I drew his comments on fascism. His interpretation of surrealism can be found in his
El artista y la época
(
O.C
., vol. 6, Amauta, Lima, 1957).

The relations between Mariátegui and Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, and their differing attitudes toward APRA, are dealt with by his biographers (already cited) and Mariátegui's final position on this issue is in issue no. 17 of
Amauta
(Facsimile edition, Lima). Also relevant are the comments of Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre in his
Obras completas
(Juan Mejía Baca, Lima, 1985) and two books by other authors:
Víctor Raúl. Biografía,
by Felipe Cossío del Pomar (Pachacútec, Lima, 1995) and
El pueblo continente. Ensayos para una interpretación de América Latina
, by Atenor Orrego (Centro de Documentación Andina, Lima, 1987). In Mariátegui's
Temas de Nuestra América
(
O.C.
, vol. 12, Amauta, Lima, 1960), he delineates his views of the Mexican Revolution.

His analysis of Peru is inextricably linked with his indigenism, Marxism, and utopian thinking. For his masterwork, the
7 ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana
, I used the edition of Aníbal Quijano, with notes and chronology by Elizabeth Garrels (Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2nd ed., Caracas, 1995) and the relevant material (as well as other themes) in his
El alma matinal y otras estaciones del hombre de hoy
(
O.C.,
vol. 3. Amauta, Lima, 1959), his
Defensa del marxismo
(
O.C.
, vol. 5, Amauta, Lima, 1959);
Peruanicemos al Perú
(
O.C.,
vol. 11, Amauta, Lima),
Temas de nuestra América
(vol. 12, Amauta, Lima, 1960) and finally
Ideología y política
(
O.C.,
vol. 13, Amauta, Lima, 1957). Some of his important interpretations of politics are to be found in his
Historia de la crisis mundial. Conferencias pronunciadas en 1923
(
O.C.,
vol. 8, Amauta, Lima, 1959).

The central treatment of the publishing house Amauta is in volume 19 of his
Obras Completas
. It contains a narrative description of the enterprise, from its origins to its demise after the death of Mariátegui and contains a general index.

For the quotation abut myth and the religious aspects of Marxism, see his
El alma matinal
, while his comment on Roosevelt and Thoreau is from “El Ibero-americanismo y Pan-americanismo,” in
Temas de Nuestra América
.

Along with his
7 Ensayos
,
Peruanicemos al Perú
is the principal site for his indigenist ideas. Also relevant on this theme is
Tempestad en los Andes
, by Luis Valcárcel (Polémica, Lima, 1927), from which book Mariátegui drew his description of the
ayllu
and the
curacas
. His debates with Luis Alberto Sánchez are amply discussed in Alberto Flores Galindo,
Buscando un Inca
(Horizonte, Lima, 1986). The same author describes Mariátegui's divergences from more orthodox Marxists in his
La agonía de Mariátegui: la polémica con la Komintern
(Centro de Estudios y Promoción del Desarrollo, Lima, 1980).

 

O
CTAVIO
P
AZ

For Paz's view of his own life, I found the following material especially useful: his short autobiographical book
Itinerario
(FCE, Mexico, 1993) as well as the series of interviews published in volume 15 of
Miscelánea III, Entrevistas
, from his
Obras Completas
(Círculo de Lectores and FCE, Mexico, 2003). Also the interview (with Claude Fell) in the magazine
Plural
(November 1975) titled “Vuelta a
El laberinto de la soledad
” on the genesis of his most famous work of prose, and my own biographical interview with him (in March 1984) collected in my book
Travesía liberal
(Tusquets, 2003).

Important autobiographical material comes directly from his poems, collected (along with all his prose writings) in the fifteen volumes of his
Obras completas
(FCE). A good selection of his poems, mostly from his later work, has been edited and translated by Eliot Weinberger in
Collected Poems of Octavio Paz
(New Directions, 1991), though all selections from Paz's poems and prose used here have been newly translated from the Spanish by Hank Heifetz.

My information on Paz's grandfather Ireneo comes from his memoirs,
Algunas campañas
(FCE, Mexico, 1996), dealing with Ireneo's long period as a rebel and fighter on the liberal side in the nineteenth-century Mexican civil wars; from Napoleón Rodríguez's
Ireneo Paz. Letras y espada liberal
(Ediciones Fontanara, 2002); and especially from the prologue of Felipe Gálvez,
Hoguera que fue
(UAM, 2004). I also consulted facsimiles of Ireneo's magazine
El Padre Cobos
and his newspaper
La Patria
, as well as Octavio Paz's memories of his grandfather in his own poetry and prose and his preface, “Silueta de Ireneo Paz,” to
Algunas campañas
.

Octavio Paz Solórzano, the poet's father, left no memoir but a number of articles on the Zapatista Revolution and one biography of Zapata, published in 1986 by his son Octavio, “Tres revoluciones, tres testimonios,” and
Zapata
(EOSA, 1988). I also examined various articles by him in magazines and newspapers of his time, such as
Crisol
,
La Prensa
, and
El Universal
and drew information on his life as a rebel from the newspaper
La Patria.
The report of his death appeared in “El Licenciado Paz muerto bajo las ruedas de un tren,”
El Universal
, March 13, 1935. His letters to Zapata can be found in the Archivo de Gildardo Magaña in the Centro de Estudios Históricos de Condumex.

The most important anthology of Octavio Paz's articles on Mexico is
México en la obra de Octavio Paz
(FCE, Mexico, 1987), in three volumes:
El peregrino en su patria
,
Generaciones y semblanzas,
and
Los privilegios de la vista
. Another major anthology (compiled by Enrico Mario Santí) is
Primeras letras
(Vuelta, 1988), which contains his major essays and articles written between 1931 and 1944. I am also grateful to Hugo Verani for his excellent
Bibliografía crítica de Octavio Paz,
1931–1996
(FCE, Mexico) and I made frequent use of Paz's various books of essays, especially
Octavio Paz en España:
Antología de textos y poemas
(FCE, Mexico, 2007); two editions of
El laberinto de la soledad
(Cuadernos Americanos, 1950; and FCE, Mexico, 1960);
Las peras del olmo
(Biblioteca Breve, Barcelona, 1971);
Corriente alterna
(Siglo XXI Editores, 1967);
Posdata
(Siglo XXI Editores, 1970);
Los hijos del limo
(Seix Barral, Barcelona, 1974);
El ogro filantrópico: Historia y política 1971–1978
(Joaquín Mortiz, Mexico, 1979);
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz o las trampas de la fe
(Seix Barral, Barcelona, 1982);
Tiempo Nublado
(Seix Barral, Barcelona, 1983);
Hombres en su siglo
(Seix Barral, Barcelona, 1984);
Poesía
,
mito
,
revolución
(Vuelta, 1989);
Pequeña crónica de grandes días
(FCE, Mexico, 1990). Also of interest are Paz's discourses at the conference “Encuentro Vuelta: La experiencia de la libertad,” proceedings of which were published in 5 volumes, and his articles on the conflict in the state of Chiapas, published in
Vuelta
: “Chiapas: Nudo ciego o tabla de salvación,” February 1994; “Chiapas: hechos, dichos, gestos,” March 1994; and “Chiapas: La selva lacandona,” February 1996.

Essential to my presentation of Paz was a consideration of the magazines he directed and the articles he published in them, the earlier magazines reissued as a collection by FCE:
Barandal
(1931),
Cuadernos del Valle de México
(1932–33),
Taller
(1938–41),
El Hijo Pródigo
(April– September 1943),
Plural
(1971–76), and especially
Vuelta
(1976–98). I also refer to articles that appeared elsewhere, like the debate between Paz and Carlos Monsiváis in
Proceso
, December 19–January 23, 1978, which can also be found in
El pensamiento político de Octavio Paz,
by Xavier Rodríguez Ledesma (UNAM and Plaza y Valdés, 1996).

Paz was a prolific correspondent and many significant statements can be found in his letters. Unpublished correspondence that I was able to consult include his love letters to Elena Garro (June 22–August 10, 1935) and his correspondence with José Luis Martínez and Victor Serge. Archived at the Benson Latin American Collection in the University of Texas at Austin are the letters to Octavio Barreda. In the Harry Ransom Center at the same university are his letters to Charles Tomlinson. His exchanges with José Bianco are in the Houghton Library of Harvard University. In the Archivo Condumex is his diplomatic correspondence with Antonio Carrillo Flores between 1964 and 1968, partially published in “Cartas a la cancillería,”
Vuelta,
March 1995.

Published collections of his letters include
Correspondencia Alfonso Reyes/Octavio Paz
(1939–59), edited by Anthony Stanton (FCE, Mexico, 1998) and
Octavio Paz/Arnaldo Orfila, Cartas cruzadas
(Siglo XXI Editores, 2006). His connections with France are detailed in Octavio Paz,
Jardines errantes: Correspondencia con J. C. Lambert 1952–1992
(Seix Barral, Barcelona, 2008) and with Spain in Octavio Paz,
Memorias y palabras. Correspondencia con Pere Gimferrer, 1966–1997
(Seix Barral, Barcelona, 1999). For his connections with the magazine
Plural
and the tensions within the culture and politics of the 1970s, see his
Cartas a Tomás Segovia
(1957–85) (FCE, Mexico, 2008). For his critical distancing from the Cuban Revolution, I consulted two articles by Rafael Rojas: “Lecturas cubanas de Octavio Paz,”
Vuelta,
June 1998, and “El gato escaldado. Viaje póstumo de Octavio Paz a la Habana,”
Anuario de la Fundación Octavio Paz
, no. 1, 1999. For his position in Mexican literature during the 1970s, I found his correspondence with José Gaos useful: “José Gaos a Octavio Paz, 12 diciembre 1963,” in
Obras completas de José Gaos
(UNAM, Mexico, 1992) and for his connection with José Revueltas, the latter's
Las evocaciones requeridas
, volumes 25 and 26 (Ediciones Era, 1983). I located materials on Paz's period as a teacher and a bureaucrat in the Archivo Histórico de la Comisión Nacional Bancaria and the Archivo Histórico de la Secretaría de Educación Pública.

The chapter contains various references to articles about Paz. Some by his mentors and several more by friends or colleagues, among them José Alvarado, Efraín Huerta, and José Luis Martínez, like “Imagen primera del poeta,” by José Luis Martínez, in
Luz espejeante: Octavio Paz ante la crítica
, selection and prologue by Enrico Mario Santí (UNAM and Ediciones Era, 2009). Very important is the book by Elena Garro,
Memorias de España 1937
(Siglo XXI Editores, 1992). For Paz's relationship with Elena Garro (mainly for the unpublished material, not for its interpretation), I used Patricia Rosas Lopategui,
Testimonios sobre Elena Garro
(Ediciones Castillo, Monterrey, 1998). I also looked at the memoir by the daughter of Paz and Garro, Helena Paz Garro's
Memorias
(Océano, 2003).