Social: Why Our Brains Are Wired to Connect (45 page)

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Authors: Matthew D. Lieberman

Tags: #Psychology, #Social Psychology, #Science, #Life Sciences, #Neuroscience, #Neuropsychology

BOOK: Social: Why Our Brains Are Wired to Connect
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Chapter 3: Broken Hearts and Broken Legs

39

41 percent of respondents indicated that they feared
Bruskin Associates (1973). What are Americans afraid of?
The Bruskin Report
, 53, p. 27.

40

one of your most painful experiences involved
Jaremka, L. M., Gabriel, S., & Carvallo, M. (2011). What makes us feel the best also makes us feel the worst: The emotional impact of independent and interdependent experiences.
Self and Identity, 10
(1), 44–63.

41

Giving birth to a baby with a big brain is not easy
Gould, S. J. (1977).
Ontogeny and Phylogeny.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press; Begun, D., & Walker, A. (1993). The endocast.
The Nariokotome Homo Erectus Skeleton.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 326–358; Flinn, M. V., Geary, D. C., & Ward, C. V. (2005). Ecological dominance, social competition, and coalitionary arms races: Why humans evolved extraordinary intelligence.
Evolution and Human Behavior, 26
(1), 10–46; Montagu, A. (1961). Neonatal and infant immaturity in man.
JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 178
(1), 56–57.

41

The downside to an immature brain
Leigh, S. R., & Park, P. B. (1998). Evolution of human growth prolongation.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 107
(3), 331–350.

41

it is true that the human prefrontal cortex
Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., … , & Thompson, P. M. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101
(21), 8174–8179.

41

In 1943, Abraham Maslow, a famous New England psychologist
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation.
Psychological Review, 50
(4), 370.

43

Without social support, infants will never survive
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Psychological Bulletin, 117
(3), 497.

44

pain was responsible for over $60 billion
Stewart, W. F., Ricci, J. A., Chee, E., Morganstein, D., & Lipton, R. (2003). Lost productive time and cost due to common pain conditions in the US workforce.
JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 290
(18), 2443–2454.

44

Children born with congenital insensitivity to pain
“The Girl Who Can’t Feel Pain”:
http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/OnCall/story?id=1386322
.

44

which animals are able to feel pain
Nordgreen, J., Garner, J. P., Janczak, A. M., Ranheim, B., Muir, W. M., & Horsberg, T. E. (2009). Thermonociception in fish: Effects of two different doses of morphine on thermal threshold and post-test behaviour in goldfish (
Carassius auratus
).
Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 119
(1), 101–107; Yue Cottee, S. (2012). Are fish the victims of “speciesism”? A discussion about fear, pain and animal consciousness.
Fish Physiology and Biochemistry
, 1–11.

45

“A sense of separation is a condition
MacLean, P. D. (1993). Introduction: Perspectives on cingulate cortex in the limbic system.
Neurobiology of Cingulate Cortex and Limbic Thalamus: A Comprehensive Handbook.
Boston: Birkhäuser, pp. 1–19.

45

I have been studying social pain with my wife
Eisenberger, N. I., & Cole, S. W. (2012). Social neuroscience and health: Neuropsychological mechanisms linking social ties with physical health.
Nature Neuroscience, 15
, 669–674.

45

pain can be dramatically modified through the power
Crasilneck, H. B., McCranie, E. J., & Jenkins, M. T. (1956). Special indications for hypnosis as a method of anesthesia.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 162
(18), 1606–1608; “Hypnosis, No Anesthetic, for Man’s Surgery”:
http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-500165_162-4033962.html
.

45

In pain experiments, simply expecting that a shock
Sawamoto, N., Honda, M., Okada, T., Hanakawa, T., Kanda, M., Fukuyama, H., … , & Shibasaki, H. (2000). Expectation of pain enhances responses to nonpainful somatosensory stimulation in the anterior cingulate cortex and parietal operculum/posterior insula: An event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study.
Journal of Neuroscience, 20
(19), 7438–7445.

46

a drink that selectively depletes the brain’s serotonin will
Crockett, M. J., Clark, L., Tabibnia, G., Lieberman, M. D., & Robbins, T. W. (2008). Serotonin modulates behavioral reactions to unfairness.
Science, 320
, 1739.

46

No one has ever broken his arm and confused that
Chen, Z., Williams, K. D., Fitness, J., & Newton, N. C. (2008). When hurt will not heal: Exploring the capacity to relive social and physical pain.
Psychological Science, 19
(8), 789–795.

47

Psychologists are discovering that language
Zhong, C., Strejcek, B., & Sivanathan, N. (2010). A clean self can render harsh moral judgment.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46
(5), 859–862.

47

the language of physical pain is the metaphor du jour
MacDonald, G., & Leary, M. R. (2005). Why does social exclusion hurt? The relationship between social and physical pain.
Psychological Bulletin, 131
(2), 202.

47

psychologist John Bowlby developed the concept of attachment
Bowlby, J. (1969).
Attachment and loss, volume i: Attachment.
New York: Basic Books.

48

We all inherited an attachment system
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Psychological Bulletin, 117
(3), 497.

48

psychologist Harry Harlow, examined primate attachment
Harlow, H. F. (1958). The nature of love.
American Psychologist, 13
, 673–685.

49

scientists have discovered
separation distress vocalizations
Hofer, M. A., & Shair, H. (2004). Ultrasonic vocalization during social interaction and isolation in 2-week-old rats.
Developmental Psychobiology, 11
(5), 495–504; Hennessy, M. B., Nigh, C. K., Sims, M. L., & Long, S. J. (1995). Plasma cortisol and vocalization responses of postweaning age guinea pigs to maternal and sibling separation: Evidence for filial attachment after weaning.
Developmental Psychobiology, 28
(2), 103–115; Boissy, A., & Le Neindre, P. (1997). Behavioral, cardiac and cortisol responses to brief peer separation and reunion in cattle.
Physiology & Behavior, 61
(5), 693–699; Romeyer, A., & Bouissou, M. F. (1992). Assessment of fear reactions in domestic sheep, and influence of breed and rearing conditions.
Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 34
(1), 93–119; Noirot, E. (2004). Ultrasounds and maternal behavior in small rodents.
Developmental Psychobiology, 5
(4), 371–387.

49

increased production of
cortisol
(a stress hormone)
Coe, C. L., Mendoza, S. P., Smotherman, W. P., & Levine, S. (1978). Mother-infant attachment in the squirrel monkey: Adrenal response to separation.
Behavioral Biology, 22
(2), 256–263; Gamallo, A., Villanua, A., Trancho, G., & Fraile, A. (1986). Stress adaptation and adrenal activity in isolated and crowded rats.
Physiology & Behavior, 36
(2), 217–221; Parrott, R. F., Houpt, K. A., & Misson, B. H. (1988). Modification of the responses of sheep to isolation stress by the use of mirror panels.
Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 19
(3), 331–338.

49

Children under the age of five
Douglas, W. B. (1975). Early hospital admissions and later disturbances of behaviour and learning.
Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 17
(4), 456–480.

49

children who lose a parent
Luecken, L. J. (1998). Childhood attachment and loss experiences affect adult cardiovascular and cortisol function.
Psychosomatic Medicine, 60
(6), 765–772.

49

This type of early childhood stressor
Hanson, J. L., Chung, M. K., Avants, B. B., Shirtcliff, E. A., Gee, J. C., Davidson, R. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2010). Early stress is associated with alterations in the orbitofrontal cortex: A tensor-based morphometry investigation of brain structure and behavioral risk.
Journal of Neuroscience, 30
(22), 7466–7472.

49

Opioids are the brain’s natural painkillers
Panksepp, J., Herman, B. H., Conner, R., Bishop, P., & Scott, J. P. (1978). The biology of social attachments: Opiates alleviate separation distress.
Biological Psychiatry, 13
, 607–613.

50

nonsedating levels of opiates
Carden, S. E., & Hofer, M. A. (1990). Independence of benzodiazepine and opiate action in the suppression of isolation distress in rat pups.
Behavioral Neuroscience, 104
(1), 160–166; Herman, B. H., & Panksepp, J. (1978). Effects of morphine and naloxone on separation distress and approach attachment: Evidence for opiate mediation of social affect.
Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 9
(2), 213–220; Kalin, N. H., Shelton, S. E., & Barksdale, C. M. (1988). Opiate modulation of separation-induced distress in non-human primates.
Brain Research, 440
(2), 285–292.

50

reconnection between mother and infant
Kalin, N. H., Shelton, S. E., & Lynn, D. E. (1995). Opiate systems in mother and infant primates coordinate intimate contact during reunion.
Psychoneuroendocrinology, 20
(7), 735–742; Keverne, E. B., Martensz, N. D., & Tuite, B. (1989). Beta-endorphin concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid of monkeys are influenced by grooming relationships.
Psychoneuroendocrinology, 14
(1), 155–161.

50

we do not conduct experiments with humans
It has been suggested that opiate addiction sometimes reflects an attempt to replace the natural opioids released by the body as a result of social and physical contact [MacLean, P. D. (1985). Brain evolution relating to family, play, and the separation call.
Archives of General Psychiatry, 42
(4), 405.]).

51

There are four reasons why an investigation
MacLean, P. D. (1985). Brain evolution relating to family, play, and the separation call.
Archives of General Psychiatry, 42
(4), 405.

51

the ACC has the highest density of opioid receptors
Wise, S. P., & Herkenham, M. (1982). Opiate receptor distribution in the cerebral cortex of the Rhesus monkey.
Science, 218
(4570), 387.

52

The
sensory aspects of pain
tell us where
Talbot, J. D., Marrett, S., Evans, A. C., & Meyer, E. (1991). Multiple representations of pain in human cerebral cortex.
Science, 251
(4999), 1355–1358; Rainville, P., Duncan, G. H., Price, D. D., Carrier, B., & Bushnell, M. C. (1997). Pain affect encoded in human anterior cingulate but not somatosensory cortex.
Science, 277
(5328), 968–971.

52

many different brain regions are working together
Kosslyn, S. M. (1992).
Wet Mind
. New York: Free Press.

53

there are patients with damage to motion perception centers
Zihl, J., Von Cramon, D., & Mai, N. (1983). Selective disturbance of movement vision after bilateral brain damage.
Brain, 106
(2), 313–340.

53

This surgery has been successfully used
Whitty, C. W., Duffield, J. E., & Cairns, H. (1952). Anterior cingulectomy in the treatment of mental disease.
Lancet, 1
(6706), 475; Le Beau, J. (1954). Anterior cingulectomy in man.
Journal of Neurosurgery, 11
(3), 268; Whitty, C. W. M. (1955). Effects of anterior cingulectomy in man.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 48
(6), 463; Steele, J. D., Christmas, D., Eljamel, M. S., & Matthews, K. (2008). Anterior cingulotomy for major depression: Clinical outcome and relationship to lesion characteristics.
Biological Psychiatry, 63
(7), 670–677.

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