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| 41 percent of respondents indicated that they feared Bruskin Associates (1973). What are Americans afraid of? The Bruskin Report , 53, p. 27.
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| one of your most painful experiences involved Jaremka, L. M., Gabriel, S., & Carvallo, M. (2011). What makes us feel the best also makes us feel the worst: The emotional impact of independent and interdependent experiences. Self and Identity, 10 (1), 44–63.
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| Giving birth to a baby with a big brain is not easy Gould, S. J. (1977). Ontogeny and Phylogeny. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press; Begun, D., & Walker, A. (1993). The endocast. The Nariokotome Homo Erectus Skeleton. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 326–358; Flinn, M. V., Geary, D. C., & Ward, C. V. (2005). Ecological dominance, social competition, and coalitionary arms races: Why humans evolved extraordinary intelligence. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26 (1), 10–46; Montagu, A. (1961). Neonatal and infant immaturity in man. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 178 (1), 56–57.
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| The downside to an immature brain Leigh, S. R., & Park, P. B. (1998). Evolution of human growth prolongation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 107 (3), 331–350.
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| it is true that the human prefrontal cortex Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., … , & Thompson, P. M. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101 (21), 8174–8179.
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| In 1943, Abraham Maslow, a famous New England psychologist Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50 (4), 370.
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| Without social support, infants will never survive Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117 (3), 497.
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| pain was responsible for over $60 billion Stewart, W. F., Ricci, J. A., Chee, E., Morganstein, D., & Lipton, R. (2003). Lost productive time and cost due to common pain conditions in the US workforce. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 290 (18), 2443–2454.
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| Children born with congenital insensitivity to pain “The Girl Who Can’t Feel Pain”: http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/OnCall/story?id=1386322 .
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| which animals are able to feel pain Nordgreen, J., Garner, J. P., Janczak, A. M., Ranheim, B., Muir, W. M., & Horsberg, T. E. (2009). Thermonociception in fish: Effects of two different doses of morphine on thermal threshold and post-test behaviour in goldfish ( Carassius auratus ). Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 119 (1), 101–107; Yue Cottee, S. (2012). Are fish the victims of “speciesism”? A discussion about fear, pain and animal consciousness. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry , 1–11.
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| “A sense of separation is a condition MacLean, P. D. (1993). Introduction: Perspectives on cingulate cortex in the limbic system. Neurobiology of Cingulate Cortex and Limbic Thalamus: A Comprehensive Handbook. Boston: Birkhäuser, pp. 1–19.
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| I have been studying social pain with my wife Eisenberger, N. I., & Cole, S. W. (2012). Social neuroscience and health: Neuropsychological mechanisms linking social ties with physical health. Nature Neuroscience, 15 , 669–674.
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| pain can be dramatically modified through the power Crasilneck, H. B., McCranie, E. J., & Jenkins, M. T. (1956). Special indications for hypnosis as a method of anesthesia. Journal of the American Medical Association, 162 (18), 1606–1608; “Hypnosis, No Anesthetic, for Man’s Surgery”: http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-500165_162-4033962.html .
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| In pain experiments, simply expecting that a shock Sawamoto, N., Honda, M., Okada, T., Hanakawa, T., Kanda, M., Fukuyama, H., … , & Shibasaki, H. (2000). Expectation of pain enhances responses to nonpainful somatosensory stimulation in the anterior cingulate cortex and parietal operculum/posterior insula: An event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of Neuroscience, 20 (19), 7438–7445.
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| a drink that selectively depletes the brain’s serotonin will Crockett, M. J., Clark, L., Tabibnia, G., Lieberman, M. D., & Robbins, T. W. (2008). Serotonin modulates behavioral reactions to unfairness. Science, 320 , 1739.
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| No one has ever broken his arm and confused that Chen, Z., Williams, K. D., Fitness, J., & Newton, N. C. (2008). When hurt will not heal: Exploring the capacity to relive social and physical pain. Psychological Science, 19 (8), 789–795.
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| Psychologists are discovering that language Zhong, C., Strejcek, B., & Sivanathan, N. (2010). A clean self can render harsh moral judgment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46 (5), 859–862.
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| the language of physical pain is the metaphor du jour MacDonald, G., & Leary, M. R. (2005). Why does social exclusion hurt? The relationship between social and physical pain. Psychological Bulletin, 131 (2), 202.
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| psychologist John Bowlby developed the concept of attachment Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss, volume i: Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
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| We all inherited an attachment system Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117 (3), 497.
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| psychologist Harry Harlow, examined primate attachment Harlow, H. F. (1958). The nature of love. American Psychologist, 13 , 673–685.
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| scientists have discovered separation distress vocalizations Hofer, M. A., & Shair, H. (2004). Ultrasonic vocalization during social interaction and isolation in 2-week-old rats. Developmental Psychobiology, 11 (5), 495–504; Hennessy, M. B., Nigh, C. K., Sims, M. L., & Long, S. J. (1995). Plasma cortisol and vocalization responses of postweaning age guinea pigs to maternal and sibling separation: Evidence for filial attachment after weaning. Developmental Psychobiology, 28 (2), 103–115; Boissy, A., & Le Neindre, P. (1997). Behavioral, cardiac and cortisol responses to brief peer separation and reunion in cattle. Physiology & Behavior, 61 (5), 693–699; Romeyer, A., & Bouissou, M. F. (1992). Assessment of fear reactions in domestic sheep, and influence of breed and rearing conditions. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 34 (1), 93–119; Noirot, E. (2004). Ultrasounds and maternal behavior in small rodents. Developmental Psychobiology, 5 (4), 371–387.
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| increased production of cortisol (a stress hormone) Coe, C. L., Mendoza, S. P., Smotherman, W. P., & Levine, S. (1978). Mother-infant attachment in the squirrel monkey: Adrenal response to separation. Behavioral Biology, 22 (2), 256–263; Gamallo, A., Villanua, A., Trancho, G., & Fraile, A. (1986). Stress adaptation and adrenal activity in isolated and crowded rats. Physiology & Behavior, 36 (2), 217–221; Parrott, R. F., Houpt, K. A., & Misson, B. H. (1988). Modification of the responses of sheep to isolation stress by the use of mirror panels. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 19 (3), 331–338.
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| Children under the age of five Douglas, W. B. (1975). Early hospital admissions and later disturbances of behaviour and learning. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 17 (4), 456–480.
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| children who lose a parent Luecken, L. J. (1998). Childhood attachment and loss experiences affect adult cardiovascular and cortisol function. Psychosomatic Medicine, 60 (6), 765–772.
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| This type of early childhood stressor Hanson, J. L., Chung, M. K., Avants, B. B., Shirtcliff, E. A., Gee, J. C., Davidson, R. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2010). Early stress is associated with alterations in the orbitofrontal cortex: A tensor-based morphometry investigation of brain structure and behavioral risk. Journal of Neuroscience, 30 (22), 7466–7472.
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| Opioids are the brain’s natural painkillers Panksepp, J., Herman, B. H., Conner, R., Bishop, P., & Scott, J. P. (1978). The biology of social attachments: Opiates alleviate separation distress. Biological Psychiatry, 13 , 607–613.
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| nonsedating levels of opiates Carden, S. E., & Hofer, M. A. (1990). Independence of benzodiazepine and opiate action in the suppression of isolation distress in rat pups. Behavioral Neuroscience, 104 (1), 160–166; Herman, B. H., & Panksepp, J. (1978). Effects of morphine and naloxone on separation distress and approach attachment: Evidence for opiate mediation of social affect. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 9 (2), 213–220; Kalin, N. H., Shelton, S. E., & Barksdale, C. M. (1988). Opiate modulation of separation-induced distress in non-human primates. Brain Research, 440 (2), 285–292.
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| reconnection between mother and infant Kalin, N. H., Shelton, S. E., & Lynn, D. E. (1995). Opiate systems in mother and infant primates coordinate intimate contact during reunion. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 20 (7), 735–742; Keverne, E. B., Martensz, N. D., & Tuite, B. (1989). Beta-endorphin concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid of monkeys are influenced by grooming relationships. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 14 (1), 155–161.
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| we do not conduct experiments with humans It has been suggested that opiate addiction sometimes reflects an attempt to replace the natural opioids released by the body as a result of social and physical contact [MacLean, P. D. (1985). Brain evolution relating to family, play, and the separation call. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42 (4), 405.]).
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| There are four reasons why an investigation MacLean, P. D. (1985). Brain evolution relating to family, play, and the separation call. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42 (4), 405.
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| the ACC has the highest density of opioid receptors Wise, S. P., & Herkenham, M. (1982). Opiate receptor distribution in the cerebral cortex of the Rhesus monkey. Science, 218 (4570), 387.
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| The sensory aspects of pain tell us where Talbot, J. D., Marrett, S., Evans, A. C., & Meyer, E. (1991). Multiple representations of pain in human cerebral cortex. Science, 251 (4999), 1355–1358; Rainville, P., Duncan, G. H., Price, D. D., Carrier, B., & Bushnell, M. C. (1997). Pain affect encoded in human anterior cingulate but not somatosensory cortex. Science, 277 (5328), 968–971.
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| many different brain regions are working together Kosslyn, S. M. (1992). Wet Mind . New York: Free Press.
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| there are patients with damage to motion perception centers Zihl, J., Von Cramon, D., & Mai, N. (1983). Selective disturbance of movement vision after bilateral brain damage. Brain, 106 (2), 313–340.
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| This surgery has been successfully used Whitty, C. W., Duffield, J. E., & Cairns, H. (1952). Anterior cingulectomy in the treatment of mental disease. Lancet, 1 (6706), 475; Le Beau, J. (1954). Anterior cingulectomy in man. Journal of Neurosurgery, 11 (3), 268; Whitty, C. W. M. (1955). Effects of anterior cingulectomy in man. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 48 (6), 463; Steele, J. D., Christmas, D., Eljamel, M. S., & Matthews, K. (2008). Anterior cingulotomy for major depression: Clinical outcome and relationship to lesion characteristics. Biological Psychiatry, 63 (7), 670–677.
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