66
| Genetic samples were obtained from a group of individuals
Way, B. M., Taylor, S. E., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2009). Variation in the mu-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) is associated with dispositional and neural sensitivity to social rejection.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United Stated of America, 106
, 15079–15084.
|
67
| The human visual system makes various assumptions
James, W. (1890/1950).
The Principles of Psychology
. New York: Dover.
|
68
| Kip Williams found that even when he told people
Zadro, L., Williams, K. D., & Richardson, R. (2004). How low can you go? Ostracism by a computer is sufficient to lower self-reported levels of belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40
(4), 560–567.
|
69
| why would all those others watch the bully
Kaltiala-Heino, R., Rimpelä, M., Marttunen, M., Rimpelä, A., & Rantanen, P. (1999). Bullying, depression, and suicidal ideation in Finnish adolescents: School survey.
Bmj, 319
(7206), 348–351; Juvonen, J., & Galván, A. (2009). Bullying as a means to foster compliance. In M. Harris (Ed.).
Bullying, Rejection and Peer Victimization: A Social Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective
. New York: Springer, pp. 299–318.
|
69
| about 10 percent of students are bullied
Fleming, L. C., & Jacobsen, K. H. (2009). Bullying and symptoms of depression in Chilean middle school students.
Journal of School Health, 79
(3), 130–137; Wolke, D., Woods, S., Stanford, K., & Schulz, H. (2001). Bullying and victimization of primary school children in England and Germany: Prevalence and school factors.
British Journal of Psychology, 92
(4), 673–696; Kaltiala-Heino, R., Rimpelä, M., Marttunen, M., Rimpelä, A., & Rantanen, P. (1999). Bullying, depression, and suicidal ideation in Finnish adolescents: School survey.
Bmj, 319
(7206), 348–351; Kim, Y. S., Koh, Y. J., & Leventhal, B. (2005). School bullying and suicidal risk in Korean middle school students.
Pediatrics, 115
(2), 357–363.
|
69
| they involve belittling comments
Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R. S., Ruan, W. J., Simons-Morton, B., & Scheidt, P. (2001). Bullying behaviors among US youth.
JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 285
(16), 2094–2100.
|
69
| They think about committing suicide more
Klomek, A. B., Marrocco, F., Kleinman, M., Schonfeld, I. S., & Gould, M. S. (2007). Bullying, depression, and suicidality in adolescents.
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46
(1), 40.
|
69
| A 1989 Finnish study assessed the level of victimization
Klomek, A. B., Sourander, A., Niemelä, S., Kumpulainen, K., Piha, J., Tamminen, T., … , & Gould, M. S. (2009). Childhood bullying behaviors as a risk for suicide attempts and completed suicides: A population-based birth cohort study.
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48
(3), 254–261.
|
69
| Suicide-related thoughts are actually quite similar
Smith, M. T., Edwards, R. R., Robinson, R. C., & Dworkin, R. H. (2004). Suicidal ideation, plans, and attempts in chronic pain patients: Factors associated with increased risk.
Pain, 111
, 201–208.
|
72
| and independently performed an anagram
Hegtvedt, K. A., & Killian, C. (1999). Fairness and emotions: Reactions to the process and outcomes of negotiations.
Social Forces, 78
(1), 269–302.
|
73
| Psychologist Tom Tyler found that defendants in court cases
Tyler, T. R. (1984). The role of perceived injustice in defendants’ evaluations of their courtroom experience.
Law & Society Review, 18
, 51.
|
73
| evidence for or against the notion that fairness
Tabibnia, G., Satpute, A. B., & Lieberman, M. D. (2008). The sunny side of fairness: Preference for fairness activates reward circuitry (and disregarding unfairness activates self-control circuitry).
Psychological Science, 19
, 339–347.
|
74
| studies typically observe activity in the anterior insula and the dACC
Sanfey, A. G., Rilling, J. K., Aronson, J. A., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2003). The neural basis of economic decision-making in the ultimatum game.
Science, 300
(5626), 1755–1758; Civai, C., Crescentini, C., Rustichini, A., & Rumiati, R. I. (2012). Equality versus self-interest in the brain: Differential roles of anterior insula and medial prefrontal cortex.
NeuroImage, 62
, 102–112.
|
74
| a group of researchers from Cal Tech examined the neural responses
Tricomi, E., Rangel, A., Camerer, C. F., & O’Doherty, J. P. (2010). Neural evidence for inequality-averse social preferences.
Nature, 463
(7284), 1089–1091.
|
75
| these are referred to as
social rewards
Lieberman, M. D., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2009). Pains and pleasures of social life.
Science, 323
, 890–891.
|
76
| Signs that others like, admire, and love us
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Psychological Bulletin, 117
(3), 497.
|
76
| asked participants for permission to contact their friends
Inagaki, T. K., & Eisenberger, N. I. (in press). Shared neural mechanisms underlying social warmth and physical warmth,
Psychological Science
.
|
77
| looked at how rewarding these touching statements really were
Castle, E., & Lieberman, M. D. (unpublished data). How much would you pay to hear “I love you”?
|
77
| our reactions to getting this rarely shared positive feedback
Guyer, A. E., Choate, V. R., Pine, D. S., & Nelson, E. E. (2012). Neural circuitry underlying affective response to peer feedback in adolescence.
Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7
(1), 81–92; Davey, C. G., Allen, N. B., Harrison, B. J., Dwyer, D. B., & Yücel, M. (2010). Being liked activates primary reward and midline self-related brain regions.
Human Brain Mapping, 31
(4), 660–668.
|
77
| participants in the scanner saw that strangers
Izuma, K., Saito, D. N., & Sadato, N. (2008). Processing of social and monetary rewards in the human striatum.
Neuron, 58
(2), 284.
|
78
| praise taps into the same reinforcement system
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles?
Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4
(1), 1–44.
|
79
| Rewards can be divided
Hull, C. L. (1952).
A Behavior System: An Introduction to Behavior Theory Concerning the Individual Organism.
New Haven: Yale University Press.
|
80
| The red patch is not intrinsically rewarding
Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate of prediction and reward.
Science, 275
(5306), 1593–1599.
|
81
| humans are supercooperators
Melis, A. P., Semmann, D., Melis, A. P., & Semmann, D. (2010). How is human cooperation different?
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365
(1553), 2663–2674; Nowak, M., & Highfield, R. (2012).
SuperCooperators: Altruism, Evolution, and Why We Need Each Other to Succeed
. New York: Free Press.
|
81
| The
principle of reciprocity
is one of the strongest
Cialdini, R. B. (2001).
Influence: Science and Practice
(Vol. 4). Boston: Allyn & Bacon; Burger, J. M., Sanchez, J., Imberi, J. E., & Grande, L. R. (2009). The norm of reciprocity as an internalized social norm: Returning favors even when no one finds out.
Social Influence, 4
(1), 11–17.
|
81
| By performing a small favor for you
Regan, R. T. (1971). Effects of a favor and liking on compliance.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7
, 627–639.
|
82
| a game called the
Prisoner’s Dilemma
I highly recommend doing a YouTube search for “golden balls,” a British game show based on the Prisoner’s Dilemma. The top few hits are highly entertaining.
|
83
| people still choose to cooperate
Hayashi, N., Ostrom, E., Walker, J., & Yamagishi, T. (1999). Reciprocity, trust, and the sense of control: A cross-societal study.
Rationality and Society, 11
(1), 27–46; Kiyonari, T., Tanida, S., & Yamagishi, T. (2000). Social exchange and reciprocity: Confusion or a heuristic?
Evolution and Human Behavior, 21
(6), 411–427.
|
83
| How can we explain why folks cooperate
Kiyonari, T., Tanida, S., & Yamagishi, T. (2000). Social exchange and reciprocity: Confusion or a heuristic?
Evolution and Human Behavior, 21
(6), 411–427.
|
83
| “the first principle of economics
Edgeworth, F. Y. (1881).
Mathematical Psychics: An Essay on the Application of Mathematics to the Moral Sciences
. London: Kegan Paul, p. 104.
|
83
| “no other end, in all his actions
Hume (1898/1754, p.117). Hume, D. (2001/1754).
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
(Vol. 3). New York: Oxford University Press, p. 117.
|
83
| “every man is presumed to seek
Hobbes, T. (1969/1651).
Leviathan
(
part iii
). Aldershot, England: Scolar Press.
|
83
| known as the
axiom of self-interest
Hollander, S. (1977). Adam Smith and the self-interest axiom.
Journal of Law and Economics, 20
(1), 133–152.
|
84
| What is surprising, though, is that
Hayashi, N., Ostrom, E., Walker, J., & Yamagishi, T. (1999). Reciprocity, trust, and the sense of control: A cross-societal study.
Rationality and Society, 11
(1), 27–46.
|
84
| in addition to being self-interested
Fehr, E., & Camerer, C. F. (2007). Social neuroeconomics: The neural circuitry of social preferences.
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11
(10), 419–427.
|
84
| people made decisions counter to their own self-interest
Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Fehr, E., Gintis, H., … , & Tracer, D. (2005). “Economic man” in cross-cultural perspective: Behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28
(6), 795–814.
|
85
| “try to teach generosity and altruism
Dawkins, R. (1976).
The Selfish Gene
. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
|
85
| We know what the brain looks like
Spitzer, M., Fischbacher, U., Herrnberger, B., Grön, G., & Fehr, E. (2007). The neural signature of social norm compliance.
Neuron, 56
(1), 185–196; O’Doherty, J. P., Buchanan, T. W., Seymour, B., & Dolan, R. J. (2006). Predictive neural coding of reward preference involves dissociable responses in human ventral midbrain and ventral striatum.
Neuron, 49
(1), 157.
|
85
| in the minds of people as they cooperate or defect
Rilling, J. K., Gutman, D. A., Zeh, T. R., Pagnoni, G., Berns, G. S., & Kilts, C. D. (2002). A neural basis for social cooperation.
Neuron, 35
(2), 395–405.
|
86
| ruling out long-term strategies like reputation building
Rilling, J. K., Sanfey, A. G., Aronson, J. A., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). Opposing BOLD responses to reciprocated and unreciprocated altruism in putative reward pathways.
Neuroreport, 15
(16), 2539–2243.
|
86
| In Isaac Asimov’s book
The End of the Eternity
Asimov, I. (2010/1955).
The End of Eternity
. New York: Tor Books, pp. 117–118.
|
87
| “Scratch an ‘altruist’ and watch a ‘hypocrite’ bleed”
Ghiselin, M. T. (1974).
The Economy of Nature and the Evolution of Sex
(Vol. 247). Berkeley: University of California Press; Dawkins, R. (1976).
The Selfish Gene
. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
|
87
| there may be a hidden selfish motivation
Batson, C. D. (1991).
The Altruism Question: Toward a Social-Psychological Answer
. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p. 116.
|
89
| the psychological mechanism that motivates us to selflessly help
Wilson, E. O. (2012).
The Social Conquest of Earth
. New York: Liveright.
|
89
| what some call the warm glow of altruistic behavior
Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving.
Economic Journal, 100
(401), 464–477.
|
89
| to be selfish, you should do it in a very intelligent way
Lama, D. (1994).
The Way to Freedom.
New York: HarperCollins, p. 154.
|
89
| an fMRI study looking at the activity in the brain
Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103
(42), 15623–15628; Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations.
Science, 316
(5831), 1622–1625.
|
90
| the most selfish people on the planet: teenagers
Telzer, E. H., Masten, C. L., Berkman, E. T., Lieberman, M. D., & Fuligni, A. J. (2010). Gaining while giving: An fMRI study of the rewards of family assistance among White and Latino youth.
Social Neuroscience, 5
, 508–518.
|
90
| examined supportive behavior between boyfriends and girlfriends
Inagaki, T. K., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2012). Neural correlates of giving support to a loved one.
Psychosomatic Medicine, 74
, 3–7.
|
91
| our support of others could contribute significantly to our well-being
Brown, S. L., Nesse, R. M., Vinokur, A. D., & Smith, D. M. (2003). Providing social support may be more beneficial than receiving it: Results from a prospective study of mortality.
Psychological Science, 14
(4), 320–327.
|
91
| Adam Smith, one of the founders of modern economics
Smith, A. (1776).
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
. London: W. Strahan and T. Cadell.
|
91
| “How selfish soever man may be supposed
Smith, A. (1759).
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
. Edinburgh: A. Kincaid and J. Bell.
|
92
| Many mammalian species have shown opioid-linked pleasure responses
Keverne, E. B., Martensz, N. D., & Tuite, B. (1989). Beta-endorphin concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid of monkeys are influenced by grooming relationships.
Psychoneuroendocrinology, 14
(1), 155–161.
|
92
| in humans most of our grooming is verbal
Dunbar, R. (1998). Theory of mind and the evolution of language. In J. Hurford, M. Studdart-Kennedy, & C. Knight (Eds.).
Approaches to the Evolution of Language
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 92–110.
|
