Tecumseh and Brock (36 page)

Epilogue

Two Mysteries

T
HE ALLIANCE BETWEEN
the impetuous British general and the Shooting Star did not endure long. Two months after they met, Brock was dead. Tecumseh never found another British commander willing to take the fight to the enemy with the same élan. A year after Brock was killed on Queenston Heights, Tecumseh died on the battlefield at Moraviantown.

Had Brock and Tecumseh lived, it is reasonable to speculate that Brock would have used whatever influence he had to win the deal for Tecumseh to which he had committed himself. But how much influence would he have had? The diplomats who negotiated the peace treaty with the United States in Ghent were acting on the instructions of the government at Westminster. And the British cared above all about their broad imperial interests.

Tecumseh's confederacy was the final occasion in history when native forces played a crucial role in determining the outcome of a geostrategic struggle in North America. The inspired concept of a native state reached the peak of its influence in the years prior to the War of 1812 and during the first year of the conflict. With the Treaty of Ghent in 1814, the concept became a lost cause.

The British were glad to put the War of 1812 behind them. They regarded it as a strategic annoyance imposed on them by the Americans. In their view, its outcome was satisfactory: no imperial territory was lost, and the British did not even have to concede to the United States on the issue of impressment. While British diplomats argued for a time in favour of a native state in North America, they quite easily shelved the concept when it became a barrier to achieving peace. On June 18, 1815, three years to the day after the American declaration of war, the British and their allies fought and won the decisive Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon was defeated and exiled to St. Helena, a small, windswept island in the South Atlantic. The year 1815 marked the dawn of Pax Britannica, the century in which Britain was the world's leading imperial power, a period of dominance that ended only with the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914.

Americans look back on the War of 1812 as a decisive trial through which the nation passed, emerging stronger and more united. American historians have depicted the conflict as the country's second war of independence, or as the war that forged a nation.
1

Were it not for the repeated American claim in books, songs, and films that the United States won the War of 1812, the assertion would seem self-evidently absurd. After all, the U.S. initiated the conflict and gained no territory as a result. There is no question, though, that the young republic held its own on the battlefield against the world's greatest power and put an end to British intervention in American–Native affairs.

The war also pushed the Americans to overcome the dangerous
ideological division that had plagued the country since the 1780s. The split between Republicans and Federalists reflected the great
ideological-philosophical conflicts of the age of the French Revolution
and the succeeding Napoleonic era. During these volatile decades, Americans, like Europeans, positioned themselves along a spectrum that extended from those who identified with the French Revolution to those who feared the Revolution and sided with the British resistance to France. By the end of the war, Americans had left behind the preoccupations of the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic age to embark on a more exclusively American journey.

For the French Canadians, the war was the latest in a long history of invasions from the south. During the Patriot invasion of Quebec in 1775, Americans had managed to occupy Montreal for a time, but no major regions or towns in Lower Canada were taken and held by U.S. forces in the War of 1812. The most noteworthy episode of the war for French Canadians was the Battle of Chateauguay in 1813, when Lieutenant Colonel de Salaberry led a small, largely French-Canadian militia unit to rout a much larger American force. De Salaberry emerged as a French-Canadian folk hero. His statue can be seen today at the National Assembly in Quebec City, sword in hand, beckoning his men to follow him.

The War of 1812 was Upper Canada's War of Independence. Upper Canadians emerged from the conflict with a North American sensibility and a conservative political culture. Loyalty to the Crown became the highest expression of public virtue. Those who refused to proclaim their loyalty were tainted with the double sin of being both overtly or covertly republican and pro-American. In sharp contrast to the Americans, Upper Canadians believed that maintaining strong ties to the British Crown was the route to independence — not within the Empire, but from the United States. The fact that they developed their unique character by clinging to an empire has always made the Upper Canadian identity perplexing.

The unpopular war did have one enduring historical consequence: north of Mexico, there were to be two great continental states, one of them much more populous and powerful than the other, to be sure. Against all odds, a transcontinental Canada, embracing many cultures and adopting two official languages, would take its place alongside the rising global power to the south. That Tecumseh and Brock, neither of whom was Canadian, are among the country's immortals attests to the enigma that is Canada.

A testament to the enduring legacy of these towering figures is the fact that two mysteries, one concerning Brock and the other Tecumseh, linger still today.

General Isaac Brock took to his grave the answer to a question about which observers remain divided: did he have an unacknow-ledged romance with a young woman by the name of Sophia Shaw?

To outward appearances, Brock appears to have been singularly devoted to his military career and his advancement in the army. He never married, and it is generally accepted that there is no evidence he ever established a relationship with a woman. But ever since his death, some have claimed that General Brock was engaged to Miss Sophia Shaw, a young woman who lived in York with her family. According to one story, as Brock set out on his horse Alfred en route to Queenston on the morning of his death, he encountered Sophia, dismounted briefly to accept a beverage from her, and then resumed his journey to the battle. Some claim, although the evidence is slight, that when Brock fell in battle at Queenston Heights in 1813, he muttered the name “Sophia” as he died. Years after the end of the war, Miss Shaw, heavily veiled and dressed in mourning clothes, appeared at a garden party at Government House in York.

If the stories about Miss Shaw are true, why did the general keep it a secret? There is evidence that Brock's friends in England would have regarded a marriage to any Canadian as beneath him. In April 1811, from Hampton Court Park in England, Colonel J. A. Vesey wrote to the general to tell him that he wished he “had a daughter old enough for you, as I would give her to you with pleasure. You should be married, particularly as fate seems to detain you so long in Canada — but pray do not marry there.”
2
A month later, the colonel wrote again to Brock to commiserate with him about “the stupid and uninteresting time you must have passed in Upper Canada.”
3

Given the large age gap between the two — Sophia Shaw was in her late teens and Brock was forty-three when he died at Queenston — some historical analysts, among them Gillian Lenfestey in Guernsey, believe that Sophia was infatuated with the general and developed the delusional idea after his death that she and Brock had been betrothed.

The second mystery concerns the death of the great Shawnee chief and his subsequent resting place.

After it was known that Tecumseh had fallen on the battlefield in October 1813, Kentucky soldiers found a corpse they believed to be his and cut slices of flesh from the body to take home as souvenirs. Later it was believed that the body of the decoratively attired warrior was not that of Tecumseh, whose custom was to wear simple clothes into battle. The day after the fight, William Henry Harrison was taken to see the body of the warrior believed to be Tecumseh, but he did not recognize the swollen and disfigured remains as those of his old foe.

From there, the mystery goes in three directions. Some have insisted that Tecumseh was buried near the place where he fell — of this faction, some believe his bones have since been dug up and moved elsewhere, while others say that the great chief still lies in a grave on the battlefield and that someday his bones will be unearthed and his broken thigh bone will reveal his identity. Another theory holds that Tecumseh's body was removed from the field of battle to be buried in a grave in what is now the east end of London, Ontario. Yet another view is that Tecumseh's body was taken from the battlefield by native warriors and was transported for burial to the native territory of St. Anne Island, located on the Ontario side of the St. Clair River, across from the state of Michigan and adjacent to Walpole Island.

In 1931, when Wilson Knaggs and his family moved into the home of the elderly Sarah White on Walpole Island, Knaggs poked around in the attic, where he discovered a burlap bag containing human bones. When informed of the find, Mrs. White was not at all surprised. She told Knaggs that her late husband, Chief Joseph White, had placed the bones there, and that their presence was to remain a secret. Knaggs pressed further for an explanation, and Mrs. White finally told him that the bones were those of Tecumseh.
4

According to the story, Chief White had acquired the bones from a Dr. Mitchell, who had himself obtained them from a burial site on St. Anne Island. Fearing that various parties would want to take possession of the remains, Chief White hid them around his property in a number of locations. Mrs. White had intended to go to her death without revealing her husband's secret.

Feeling the weight of responsibility for the find, Knaggs decided to tell the Walpole Island Soldiers' Club, consisting of native veterans of the First World War. The veterans acted quickly. They called in experts and shared their discovery with others, some of whom were skeptical. Dr. W. B. Rutherford of Sarnia, Ontario, was called in to examine the bones and managed to assemble the skeleton of a medium-sized male. What was missing was the critical piece of evidence: the thigh bone.

The veterans of Walpole Island held to their claim that Tecumseh had been found. Frustrated by the absence of any effort to honour Tecumseh with a monument and burial place on the island, they held a ceremony on a sunny day in August 1934. Guests from both Canada and the United States convened on Walpole Island to commemorate the life of the great leader, the discovery of his bones, and the plan to establish a burial site.

Progress toward establishing the site proceeded slowly. Finally, on August 25, 1941, several thousand people journeyed to Walpole Island to attend a ceremony in which the great Shawnee chief's bones were placed inside a casket made especially for the occasion. The casket was then sealed inside a stone cairn located on the northwest corner of the island, overlooking the St. Clair River.
5
As far as the veterans on Walpole Island were concerned, Tecumseh had found a resting place on native soil.

Notes

Chapter 1: Tecumseh, the Shooting Star

1. Richard White,
   The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815
   (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 269.
   
2. John Sugden,
   Tecumseh: A Life
   (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 215.
   
3. Stephen Ruddell,
   Reminiscences of Tecumseh's Youth
   (Wisconsin Historical Society, 2003), 120; online facsimile edition at http://www.americanjourneys.org/aj-155.
   
4. John Sugden,
   Tecumseh: A Life
   (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 23.
   
5. Benjamin Drake,
   Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
   (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 9.
   
6. Ibid.
   
7. Albert Gallatin,
   A Synopsis of the Indian Tribes within the United States East of the Rocky Mountains, and in the British and Russian Possessions in North America
   (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1836), 65–68.
   
8. Benjamin Drake,
   Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
   (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 61–65.
   
9. E. B. O'Callaghan, ed.,
   Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York
   ,
   vol. 8 (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1857), 111–37.
   
10. Benjamin Drake,
    Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
    (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 34.
    
11. Stephen Ruddell,
    Reminiscences of Tecumseh's Youth
    (Wisconsin Historical Society, 2003), 121; online facsimile edition at http://www.americanjourneys.org/aj-155.
    
12. Benjamin Drake,
    Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
    (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 47–49.
    
13. Ibid., 67.
    
14. John S. C. Abbott,
    Daniel Boone: The Pioneer of Kentucky
    (New York: Dodd and Mead, 1872), 194–209.
    
15. Ibid., 224.
    
16. Ibid., 244.
    
17. Colin G. Calloway,
    One Vast Winter Count: The Native American West Before Lewis and Clark
    (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), 369–70.
    
18. John Sugden,
    Tecumseh: A Life
    (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 4–5.
    
19. Ibid., 36.
    
20. Adam Shortt and Arthur G. Doughty,
    Canada and Its Provinces
    , vol. 4 (Toronto: Publishers' Association of Canada, 1914), 712–13.
    
21. Colin G. Calloway,
    One Vast Winter Count: The Native American West Before Lewis and Clark
    (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), 372–73.
    
22. John Sugden,
    Tecumseh: A Life
    (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 45–46.
    
23. Ibid., 44–45.
    
24. Benjamin Drake,
    Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
    (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 67–68.
    
25. John Sugden,
    Tecumseh: A Life
    (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 39–40.
    
26. Stephen Ruddell,
    Reminiscences of Tecumseh's Youth
    (Wisconsin Historical
    Society, 2003), 124; online facsimile edition at www.americanjourneys.org/aj-155.
    
27. Benjamin Drake,
    Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
    (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 68.
    

Chapter 2: A Warrior's Odyssey

1. John Sugden,
   Tecumseh: A Life
   (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 46–47, 49.
   
2. Henry A. Ford, A. M. and Mrs. Kate B. Ford.
   History of Hamilton County, Ohio, with Illustrations and Biographical Sketches
   (Cleveland: L. A. Williams, 1881), 56–65.
   
3. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
   , http://www.biographi.ca.
   
4. Stephen Ruddell,
   Reminiscences of Tecumseh's Youth
   (Wisconsin Historical Society, 2003), 125–26; online facsimile edition at http://www.americanjourneys.org/aj-155.
   
5. Ibid., 123.
   
6. Benjamin Drake,
   Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
   (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 69.
   
7. Stephen Ruddell,
   Reminiscences of Tecumseh's Youth
   (Wisconsin Historical Society, 2003), 126; online facsimile edition at http://www.americanjourneys.org/aj-155.
   
8. John Sugden,
   Tecumseh: A Life
   (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 61.
   
9. S. P. Hildreth,
   Pioneer History: Being an Account of the First Examinations of the Ohio Valley, and the Early Settlement of the Northwest Territory
   (Cincinnati: H. W. Derby; New York: A. B. Barnes, 1848), 222–25.
   
10. Benjamin Drake,
    Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
    (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 37.
    
11. William B. Kessel and Robert Wooster, eds.,
    Encyclopedia of Native American Wars and Warfare
    (New York: Facts on File, 2005), 280.
    
12. Stephen Ruddell,
    Reminiscences of Tecumseh's Youth
    (Wisconsin Historical Society, 2003), 126–27; online facsimile edition at http://www.americanjourneys.org/aj-155.
    
13. Jim Poling, Sr.,
    Tecumseh: Shooting Star, Crouching Panther
    (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2009), 45.
    
14. Benjamin Drake,
    Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
    (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 71, 72.
    
15. Adam Shortt and Arthur G. Doughty,
    Canada and Its Provinces
    , vol. 3 (Toronto: Publishers' Association of Canada, 1914), 149.
    
16. Benjamin Drake,
    Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
    (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 81.
    
17. Wayne Moquin with Charles Van Doren, eds.,
    Great Documents in American Indian History
    (New York: Praeger, 1973), 132.
    
18. Benjamin Drake,
    Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
    (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 83.
    

Chapter 3: A New Power

1. Samuel Eliot Morison and Henry Steele Commager,
   The Growth of the American Republic
   , 7th ed., vol. 1 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1962), 380–81.
   
2. John M. Murrin, Paul E. Johnson, James M. McPherson, Gary Gerstle, and Emily S. Rosenberg,
   Liberty,
   Equality, Power: A History of the American People
   , 6th ed., vol. 1 (Beverly, MA: Wadsworth, 2012), 217.
   
3. James Madison, Secretary of State of the United States, to James Monroe and William Pinkney, United States Ministers to Great Britain, Department of State, 20 May 1807, in
   Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States: Canadian Relations, 1784–1860
   , vol. 1, 1784–1820, ed. William R. Manning (Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1940), 177–78.
   
4. John M. Murrin, Paul E. Johnson, James M. McPherson, Gary Gerstle, and
   Emily S. Rosenberg,
   Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American
   People
   , 6th ed., vol. 1 (Beverly, MA: Wadsworth, 2012), 217.
   
5. David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, eds.,
   Encyclopedia of the War of 1812
   , (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2004), 156.
   
6. Ibid., 168.
   
7. Theodore Roosevelt,
   The Naval War of 1812
   (n.p.: Seven Treasures Publications, 1999; first published 1882 by G. Putnam's Sons), 23.
   
8. N. A. M. Rodger,
   The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815
   (London: Penguin, 2004), 566.
   
9. William James,
   The Naval History of Great Britain
   , new edition by Captain Chamier, R. N., vol. 4 [London, 1837], 324, cited in Theodore Roosevelt,
   The Naval War of
   1812
   (n.p.: Seven Treasures Publications, 2009; first published 1882 by G. Putnam's Sons), 21.
   
10. Theodore Roosevelt,
    The Naval War of 1812
    (n.p.: Seven Treasures Publications, 2009; first published 1882 by G. Putnam's Sons), 21–22.
    
11. Robert V. Remini,
    Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union
    (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 29.
    
12. Ibid., 61.
    
13. Jay Feldman,
    When the Mississippi Ran Backwards: Empire, Intrigue, Murder, and the New Madrid Earthquakes
    (New York: Free Press, 2005), 197.
    
14. “Speech on the Resolution of the Committee on Foreign Relations, December 12, 1811,” in
    Union and Liberty: The Political Philosophy of John C. Calhoun
    , ed. Ross M. Lence (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1992), The Online Library of Liberty, 192. PDF copy available at http://oll.libertyfund.org.
    
15. Robert V. Remini,
    Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union
    (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 60.
    
16. A. J. Langguth,
    Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence
    , paperback edition (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006), 151.
    
17. Jon Latimer,
    1812: War with America
    (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 31.
    
18. “Speech on the Resolution of the Committee on Foreign Relations, December 12, 1811,” in
    Union and Liberty: The Political Philosophy of John C. Calhoun
    , ed. Ross M. Lence (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1992), The Online Library of Liberty, 192. PDF copy available at http://oll.libertyfund.org.
    
19. Walter Borneman,
    1812: The War that Forged a Nation
    (New York: HarperCollins, 2004), 29.
    

Chapter 4: Isaac Brock and the
Defence of the Canadas

1. N. A. M. Rodger,
   The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815
   (London: Penguin, 2004), 608.
   
2. Gregory Fremont-Barnes,
   The Royal Navy, 1793–1815
   (Oxford: Osprey, 2007), 32.
   
3. Ibid., 44.
   
4. Ibid., 46.
   
5. Ibid., 10.
   
6. John Keegan,
   Battle at Sea: From Man-of-War to Submarine
   (London: Pimlico, 2004), 7–8.
   
7. Wesley B. Turner,
   British Generals in the War of 1812: High Command in the Canadas
   (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999), 11–12.
   
8. Ferdinand Brock Tupper, Esq., ed.,
   The Life and Correspondence of Major-General Sir Isaac Brock
   ,
   K.B.
   (London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1847), 4–5.
   
9. Ibid., 18.
   
10. Ibid., 8, 11–13.
    
11. Brock to Lieutenant-Colonel John Brock, 81st Regiment, at the Cape of Good Hope, London, 26 November 1799, in
    The Life and Correspondence of Major-General Sir Isaac Brock
    ,
    K.B.
    , ed. Ferdinand Brock Tupper, Esq. (London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1847), 13.
    
12. Ferdinand Brock Tupper, Esq., ed.,
    The Life and Correspondence of Major-General Sir Isaac Brock, K.B.
    (London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1847), 16–17.
    
13. Adam Shortt and Arthur G. Doughty,
    Canada and Its Provinces
    , vol. 3
    (Toronto: Publishers' Association of Canada, 1914), 150–51.
    
14. Ferdinand Brock Tupper, Esq., ed.,
    The Life and Correspondence of Major-General Sir Isaac Brock
    ,
    K.B.
    (London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1847), 25–32.
    
15. Wesley B. Turner,
    British Generals in the War of 1812: High Command in the Canadas
    (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999), 61.
    
16. Jon Latimer,
    1812: War with America
    (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 37–38.
    
17. Brock to his brothers, Quebec, 19 November 1808, in
    The Life and Correspondence of Major-General Sir Isaac Brock, K.B.
    , ed. Ferdinand Brock Tupper, Esq. (London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1847), 73–74.
    
18. Brock to his brother Irving, Niagara, 10 January 1811, in
    The Life and Correspondence of Major-General Sir Isaac Brock, K.B.
    , ed. Ferdinand Brock Tupper, Esq. (London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1847), 87.
    
19. Brock to his sister-in-law, Mrs. W. Brock, Quebec, 8 June 1810, in
    The Life and Correspondence of Major-General Sir Isaac Brock, K.B.
    , ed. Ferdinand Brock Tupper, Esq. (London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1847), 76–77.
    
20. Ibid.
    
21. Colonel Baynes to Brigadier Brock, at Fort George, Quebec, 4 March 1811, in
    The Life and Correspondence of Major-General Sir Isaac Brock, K.B.
    , ed. Ferdinand Brock Tupper, Esq. (London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1847), 99.
    

Chapter 5: Showdown

1. Richard White,
   The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815
   (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 474.
   
2. John Sugden,
   Tecumseh: A Life
   (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 105–6.
   
3. Benjamin Drake,
   Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
   (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 125–26.
   
4. John Sugden,
   Tecumseh: A Life
   (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 183–85.
   
5. Benjamin Drake,
   Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
   (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 125, 126.
   
6. Edward Egglestone and Lillie Egglestone Seelye,
   The Shawnee People, or The Story of Tecumseh
   (London, 1880), 182–86, cited in Carl F. Klinck, ed.,
   Tecumseh: Fact and Fiction in Early Records
   (Ottawa: Tecumseh Press, 1978), 71–72.
   
7. Benjamin Drake,
   Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
   (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 127, 128.
   
8. Ibid., 128–29.
   
9. Ibid., 129.
   
10. Ibid., 142.
    
11. Ibid., 138.
    
12. Gilbert Collins,
    Guidebook to the Historic Sites of the War of 1812
    (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2006), 41.
    
13. John Sugden,
    Tecumseh: A Life
    (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 212–13.
    
14. Ibid.
    
15. Ibid., 248–57.
    
16. Sean Michael O'Brien,
    In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles
    (Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2005), 21–22.
    
17. Ibid., 9, 11.
    
18. Gregory Evans Dowd,
    A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745–1815
    (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 152–54.
    
19. Michael D. Green,
    The Politics of Indian Removal: Creek Government and Society in Crisis
    (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985), 39.
    
20. Sean Michael O'Brien,
    In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles
    (Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2005), 1.
    
21. Gregory Evans Dowd,
    A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745–1815
    (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 152.
    
22. Sean Michael O'Brien,
    In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles
    (Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2005), 13.
    
23. Michael D. Green,
    The Politics of Indian Removal: Creek Government and Society in Crisis
    (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985), 39.
    
24. Gregory Evans Dowd,
    A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745–1815
    (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 146–47.
    
25. Everett T. Tomlinson,
    Tecumseh's Young Braves: A Story of the Creek War
    (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1897), 24.
    
26. Sean Michael O'Brien,
    In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles
    (Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2005), 19.
    
27. Ibid., 19–20, 23.
    
28. Benjamin Drake,
    Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
    (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 226.
    
29. John Sugden,
    Tecumseh: A Life
    (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 245–46.
    
30. Jay Feldman,
    When the Mississippi Ran Backwards: Empire, Intrigue, Murder, and the New Madrid Earthquakes
    (New York: Free Press, 2005), 5–6.
    
31. Anders Breidlid, Fredrik Chr. Brøgger, Øyvind T. Gulliksen, and Torbjorn Sirevag, eds.,
    American Culture: An Anthology of Civilization Texts
    (London: Routledge, 1996), 10–13.
    
32. Sean Michael O'Brien,
    In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles
    (Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2005), 23.
    
33. Allan W. Eckert,
    A Sorrow in Our Heart: The Life of Tecumseh
    (New York: Bantam, 1993), 662.
    
34. Benjamin Drake,
    Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
    (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 144.
    
35. Michael D. Green,
    The Politics of Indian Removal: Creek Government and Society in Crisis
    (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985), 39.
    
36. Sean Michael O'Brien,
    In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles
    (Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2005), 23.
    
37. Benjamin Drake,
    Life of Tecumseh, and of His Brother the Prophet; with a Historical Sketch of the Shawanoe Indians
    (Cincinnati: E. Morgan, 1841), 145.