Terror in the Balkans (115 page)

most part destroyed.

19. Edmund Glaise von Horstenau et al.,
Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg
, vols. 1–7

(Vienna: Verlag der Militärwissenschaftlichen Mitteilungen, 1930–1938).

20. See also Appendix A.

21. On the leadership principle, see Ian Kershaw,
The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and
Perspectives of Interpretation
, 4th ed. (London: Edward Arnold, 2000), chap. 4.

On the nature of rear area security directives as guidelines rather than clear orders,

see Hannes Heer, “The Logic of the War of Extermination. The Wehrmacht and

the Counter-Insurgency War,” in
War of Extermination: The German Military

in World War II 1941–1944
, ed. Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann (New York:

Berghahn, 2000), 99–103. Heer arguably overstates the degree to which “leadership

principle”–type directives brutalized the Wehrmacht counterinsurgency campaign,

but his observations as to
how
they worked are illuminating.

22. A fl awed and dated, but nevertheless useful, introductory English-language overview of German counterinsurgency warfare in Yugoslavia between these dates is

Paul N. Hehn,
The German Struggle against Yugoslav Guerrillas in World War II:

German Counter-Insurgency in Yugoslavia 1941–1943
(New York: Columbia Univer-

sity Press, 1979).

272
Notes to Pages 11–14

23. Eric Hobsbawm,
Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century 1914–1991
(London: Michael Joseph, 1994), 52.

1. befor e the gr e at wa r

1. On the social composition of the German army offi cer corps under the Third

Reich, see Bernhard R. Kroener, “Strukturelle Veränderungen in der Militärischen

Gesellschaft des Dritten Reiches,” in
Nationalsozialismus und Modernisierung
,

ed. Michael Prinz and Rainer Zitelmann (Darmstadt: Wiss. Buchgesellschaft,

1994), 267–296; Bernhard R. Kroener, “Generationserfahrungen und Elitenwan-

del: Strukturveränderungen im deutschen Offi zierkorps 1933–1945,” in
Eliten in

Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Und 20. Jahrhundert: Strukturen und Bezie-

hungen, Band 1
, ed. Rainer Hudemann and Georges-Henri Soutou (Munich: Old-

enbourg, 1994), 219–233; Bernhard R. Kroener, “The Manpower Resources of the

Third Reich in the Area of Confl ict between Wehrmacht, Bureaucracy, and War

Economy, 1939–1942,” in
Germany and the Second World War, Volume 5. Organiza-

tion and Mobilization of the German Sphere of Power. Part 1: Wartime Administration, Economy, and Manpower Resources 1939–1941
, Bernhard R. Kroener et al.

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 787–1154; Bernhard R. Kroener, “Man-

agement of Human Resources, Deployment of the Population, and Manning the

Armed Forces in the Second Half of the War (1942–1944),” in
Germany and the

Second World War, Volume 5. Organization and Mobilization in the German Sphere

of Power. Part 2: Wartime Administration, Economy, and Manpower Resources

1941–1944/5
, Bernhard R. Kroener et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 918–942.

2. On the social exclusivity of the German offi cer corps during this period, see Karl

Demeter,
The German Offi cer Corps in Society and State, 1650–1945
(London: Wei-

denfeld and Nicolson, 1965), 1–73; Martin Kitchen,
The German Offi cer Corps,

1890–1914
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968); Detlef Bald,
Der deutsche Offi zier:
Sozial- und Bildungsgeschichte des deutschen Offi zierkorps im 20. Jahrhundert

(Munich: Bernard und Graefe, 1995), 38–100; Johannes Hürter,
Hitlers Heerführer:

Die deutschen Oberbefehlshaber im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941/42
(Munich:

Oldenbourg, 2006), 23–33.

3. On the offi cer corps’ attitude towards the working class, see Kitchen,
The German
Offi cer Corps, 1890–1914,
chap. 7.

4. Hürter,
Hitlers Heerführer: Die deutschen Oberbefehlshaber im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941/42
, 27.

5. István Deák,
Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg

Offi cer Corps 1848–1918
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 86–88; Gunther E.

Rothenburg,
The Army of Francis Joseph
(Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press,

1998), 132, 145–146; Günther Kronenbitter,
“Krieg im Frieden”: Die Führung der K.

u. K. Armee und die Großmachtpolitik Österreich-Ungarns 1906–1914
(Munich: Old-

enbourg, 2003), 26–33; Jonathan Gumz,
The Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in

Notes to Pages 14–17
273

Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 13–16, 30–34.

6. Rothenburg, The
Army of Francis Joseph
, 105–110, 125–127; Kronenbitter,
“Krieg
im Frieden”: Die Führung der K. u. K. Armee und die Großmachtpolitik Österreich-Ungarns 1906–1914
521–531.

7. Rothenburg, The
Army of Francis Joseph
, 118; Deák,
Beyond Nationalism: A Social
and Political History of the Habsburg Offi cer Corps 1848–1918,
86–88.

8. Deák,
Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Offi cer
Corps 1848–1918,
90.

9. Ibid., 94–95; Kronenbitter,
“Krieg im Frieden”: Die Führung der K. u. K. Armee und
die Großmachtpolitik Österreich-Ungarns 1906–1914
, 44–45; Kitchen, The
German
Offi cer Corps
, 1890–1914, 24; Hürter,
Hitlers Heerführer: Die deutschen Oberbefehlshaber im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941/42,
47.

10. Deák,
Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Offi cer
Corps 1848–1918,
95–97.

11. Demeter,
The German Offi cer Corps in Society and State, 1650–1945,
89–91.

12. Hürter,
Hitlers Heerführer: Die deutschen Oberbefehlshaber im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941/42,
41, 50. See also John Moncure,
Forging the King’s Sword: Military
Education between Tradition and Modernization. The Case of the Royal Prussian

Cadet Corps, 1871–1918
(New York: Peter Lang, 1993).

13. Kitchen, The
German Offi cer Corps
,
1890–1914
, 29–31, 120–123; Heiger Ostertag,

“Der soziale Alltag eines Offi ziers im Kaiserreich 1913: Ein militärsoziologisches

Zeitbild,”
Zeitschrift für Geschichte
38 (1990): 1069–1080; Hürter,
Hitlers Heerführer: Die deutschen Oberbefehlshaber im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941/42,
50–53.

14. On relations between the German army and German society during the Wilhelmine

period, see also Ute Frevert,
A Nation in Barracks: Modern Germany, Military Con-

scription, and Civil Society
(Oxford: Berg, 2004), chaps. 1–5.

15. Deák,
Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Offi -

cer Corps 1848–1918,
86–88; Gumz,
The Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in
Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918,
13–16, 30–34.

16. Rothenburg, The
Army of Francis Joseph
, 176.

17. A point Rothenburg himself makes.

18. See, for instance, David G. Herrmann,
The Arming of Europe and the Making of the
First World War
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996).

19. Hürter,
Hitlers Heerführer: Die deutschen Oberbefehlshaber im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941/42,
54–60; Deák,
Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History
of the Habsburg Offi cer Corps 1848–1918,
166–169; Kronenbitter,
“Krieg im Frieden”:
Die Führung der K. u. K. Armee und die Großmachtpolitik Österreich-Ungarns

1906–1914,
50–57.

20. Dennis Showalter, “From Deterrence to Doomsday Machine: The German Way

of War, 1890–1914,”
Journal of Military History
64 (2000): 691; Hürter,
Hitlers
Heerführer: Die deutschen Oberbefehlshaber im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941/42,

58–60; Deák,
Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg

Offi cer Corps 1848–1918,
112.

274
Notes to Pages 18–21

21. For an introduction to the backgrounds of the membership of the two movements,

see Roger Chickering,
We Men Who Feel Most German: A Cultural Study of the

Pan-German League 1886–1914
(London: George Allen and Unwin, 1984), 103–148;

Andrew G. Whiteside,
The Socialism of Fools: Georg Ritter von Schönerer and Aus-

trian Pan-Germanism
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975), 43–63. See also Michael Wladika,
Hitlers Vätergeneration: Die Ursprünge des Nationalsozialismus in der K. u. K. Monarchie
(Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 2005); Peter Walkenhorst,

Nation—Volk—Rasse: Radikaler Nationalismus im Deutschen Kaiserreich 1890–1914

(Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2007).

22. John W. Boyer,
Culture and Political Crisis in Vienna: Christian Socialism in

Power, 1897–1918
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 445–446.

23. Deák,
Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Offi cer
Corps 1848–1918,
172–178.

24. Kronenbitter,
“Krieg im Frieden”: Die Führung der K. u. K. Armee und die Groß-

machtpolitik Österreich-Ungarns 1906–1914
, 25.

25. Rothenburg, The
Army of Francis Joseph
, 151. See also Marsha Rozenblit,
Reconstructing a National Identity: The Jews of Habsburg Austria during World War I

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), chaps. 1, 2, and 4.

26. Kitchen, The
German Offi cer Corps
,
1890–1914
, 46.

27. Ibid.

28. Michael Burleigh and Wolfgang Wippermann,
The Racial State: Germany 1933–1945

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 23–28.

29. Mark Mazower,
Hitler’s Empire: Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe
(London: Allen Lane, 2008), 19–23. See also William W. Hagen,
Germans, Poles and Jews: The

Nationality Confl ict in the Prussian East, 1772–1914
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), esp. chaps. 5, 8.

30. William Mulligan,
The Origins of the First World War
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 139, 152–154. Recent overviews of German attitudes towards the East

include Gregor Thum,
Traumland Osten: Deutsche Bilder vom östlichen Europa im

20. Jahrhundert
(Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2006); Wolfgang Wipper-

mann,
Die Deutschen und der Osten: Feindbild und Traumland
(Darmstadt: Primus

Verlag, 2007).

31. Holger R. Herwig,
The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918

(London: Hodder Arnold, 1997), 51.

32. Ibid.

33. Ibid., 20.

34. Wolfram Wette,
The Wehrmacht: History, Myth, Reality
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 6–8.

35. Lawrence Sondhaus,
Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf: Architekt der Apokalypse
(Vienna: Neuer Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, 2003), 251–252. See also John R. Schindler, “Defeating Balkan Insurgency: The Austro-Hungarian Army in Serbia, 1878–1882,”
Journal

of Strategic Studies
27 (2004): 528–552; Robin Okey,
Taming Balkan Nationalism:
The Habsburg “Civilizing Mission” in Bosnia, 1878–1914
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).

Notes to Pages 21–25
275

36. Robert S. Wistrich,
Laboratory for World Destruction: Germans and Jews in Cen-

tral Europe
(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007), 7. See also Christian Promitzer, “The South Slavs in the Austrian Imagination: Serbs and Slovenes in the

Changing View from German Nationalism to National Socialism,” in
Creating the

Other: Ethnic Confl ict and Nationalism in Habsbgurg Central Europe
, ed. Nancy M.

Wingfi eld (Oxford: Berghahn, 2003), 183–210.

37. On the Balkan situation during the years before the Great War, see Hew Strachan,
The
First World War
, vol. 1,
To Arms
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 35–64.

38. Promitzer, “The South Slavs in the Austrian Imagination: Serbs and Slovenes in the

Changing View from German Nationalism to National Socialism,” 193.

39. Sondhaus,
Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf: Architekt der Apokalypse,
105.

40. Ibid., 91.

41. Herwig,
The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918
9.

42. Sondhaus,
Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf: Architekt der Apokalypse
, 98–100.

43. Rothenburg,
The
Army of Francis Joseph
, 127, 141–142; Kronenbitter,
“Krieg im Frieden”: Die Führung der K. u. K. Armee und die Großmachtpolitik Österreich-Ungarns

1906–1914
, 121–144.

44. Kronenbitter,
“Krieg im Frieden”: Die Führung der K. u. K. Armee und die Groß-

machtpolitik Österreich-Ungarns 1906–1914,
121–144; Gumz,
The Resurrection and
Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918,
12–13; Arno Mayer,
The Persistence
of the Old Regime: Europe to the Great War
(New York: Pantheon, 1981), 282–284.

45. See, for instance, Trutz von Trotha, “‘The Fellows Can Just Starve’: On Wars of

‘Pacifi cation’ in the African Colonies of Imperial Germany and the Concept of ‘Total