The Everlasting Empire (42 page)

40. For the impact of population growth on China’s economy, see Chao,
Man and Land
; for ecological changes in China over the centuries, see Elvin,
The Retreat of the Elephants
; for an insightful case study of Hunan Province in the late imperial period, see Perdue,
Exhausting the Earth
.

41. See Wong, “Food Riots”; Perry, “Protective Rebellion”; cf. Tong,
Disorder under Heaven
.

42. See Perry, “Permanent Rebellion?”

43. For a good analysis of the balance of power between the government and the rebels, see Naquin,
Millenarian Rebellion
and
Shantung Rebellion
.

44. These factors are discussed in Naquin,
Millenarian Rebellion
and
Shantung Rebellion
.

45. Cited from Lai Chi- tim, “Daoism and Political Rebellion,” 90.

46. See, e.g., Teng Xincai, “Lun Huang Chao,” 137–138.

47. Levy,
Biography of Huang Ch’ao
, 34 and 42.

48. See Rowe,
Crimson Rain
, and Naquin,
Millenarian Rebellion
, for further details. For systematic cannibalism as employed by the government forces against the “bandits,” see Tong,
Disorder under Heaven
, 3.

49. In this regard, the Chinese rebels’ violence can be compared to that of the peasants in the Spanish Civil War, depicted in the immortal
For Whom the Bell Tolls
by Ernest Hemingway.

50. For this topic see Ter Haar, “Rethinking ‘Violence’ ”; cf. Lewis,
Sanctioned Violence
.

51. Mao Zedong,
Selected Works
1: 28–29.

52. For the
Report’
s background, see Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism in China
, 109–118.

53. See more in James J. Y. Liu,
The Chinese Knight Errant
; Pines, “A Hero Terrorist.”

54. See details in Plaks,
The Four Masterworks
, 279–358.

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55.
Shui hu zhuan
41: 606; translation cited from Shapiro,
Outlaws of the Marsh
, 662.

56. See more in Aubin, “The Rebirth of Chinese Rule.”

57. See Zhou Lasheng, “Da Xi, Taiping tianguo keju,” 32–34; Parsons, “The Culmination,” 393.

58. See Kuhn,
Rebellion and Its Enemies
; cf. Bernhardt, “Elite and Peasant.”

59.
Shiji
6: 281; cf. Watson,
Records
[Qin], 80.

60. This presence of elite members within the rebel ranks calls into question Kuhn’s identification of the elites as natural “enemies” of the rebellions (
Rebellion and Its Enemies
). For a more nuanced approach to the Taiping case, see Zheng Xiaowei, “Loyalty, Anxiety, and Opportunism.”

61. Mao, “The Chinese Revolution and the Chinese Communist Party” (1939), in Mao,
Selected Works
2: 308.

62. Chinese debates are conveniently summarized in Cen and Liu,
Zhongguo nongmin zhanzheng
; see also Liu Kwang- Ching, “World View and Peasant Rebellion.”

CHAPTER 6
IMPERIAL POLITICAL CULTURE IN THE MODERN AGE

1. Cited from Spence,
The Search for Modern China
, 284.

2. Shambaugh, “Introduction,” 2.

3. The secondary literature on the topics covered in this chapter is enormous; I limit myself in what follows to references to those studies that directly influenced my perspective. Needless to say, many nuances of the twentieth- century developments cannot be adequately addressed here.

4. For Zhang Binglin’s views, see Esherick, “How the Qing Became China,” 237; for Sun Yat- sen, see Bergere,
Sun Yat- sen
, 265–266.

5. The only major exception to this rule was China’s recognition of the independence of the Mongolian People’s Republic in the wake of strong pressure from the USSR.

6. For a positive treatment of federalism, see Duara, “Provincial Narratives”; Chen,
Chen Jiongming
.

7. Duara, “Provincial Narratives,” 177–178.

8. Fitzgerald,
Awakening China
, is also sympathetic toward federalism, but acknowledges that “Warlord armies supplied federalists with their most potent argument for retaining provincial autonomy and offered Nationalist revolutionaries the most cogent of reasons for downgrading the province in the hierarchy of political places” (p. 166).

9. For the Northern Expedition, see Wilbur,
The Nationalist Revolution
; for Jiang Jieshi’s inability to attain full unification of China under his control, see, e.g., Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism in China
.

10. See details in McCord,
The Power of the Gun
, and Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism
.

11. For Jiang’s transmission of power, see Nathan and Gilley,
China’s New Rulers
.

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12. For an analysis of the events that led to the Tiananmen tragedy, see Baum, “The Road to Tiananmen.” For speculations about the potential for divisiveness in the next (“fifth”) generation of CPC leaders, see Li Cheng, “The Chinese Communist Party.”

13. Cited from Lin Yü- sheng,
The Crisis of Chinese Consciousness
, 66.

14. Mao, “On New Democracy” (1940), in
Selected Works
, 2: 347–348. For revisionist approaches to the May Fourth Movement, see Ip, Hon, and Lee, “The Plurality of Chinese Modernity.”

15. Schwarcz,
The Chinese Enlightenment
, 9–10; cf. Wakeman, “The Price of Autonomy,” 163–170. For “awakening” the masses, see Fitzgerald,
Awakening China
.

16. See Cheek, “From Priests to Professionals,” 185. For the establishment intellectuals in general, see articles collected in Hamrin and Cheek,
China’s Establishment Intellectuals
.

17. See, e.g., Cheek,
Propaganda and Culture
.

18. For the importance of intellectuals in facilitating Deng’s “restoration,” see MacFarquhar, “The Succession to Mao,” 311–327.

19. For an example of the 1980s observation, see, e.g., Moody, “The Political Culture”; for the post- 1989 analysis, see, e.g. Cheek, “From Priests to Professionals,” and other articles in Wassertrom and Perry,
Popular Protest
.

20. It should be recalled here that one of the most important essays in CPC history, “How to Be a Good Communist” (1939) by Liu Shaoqi (
Selected Works of Liu Shaoqi
, 107–168), depicts an ideal Communist in overtly Confucian terms. Needless to say, in both cases there were plenty of hypocrites who hid their selfishness behind lofty pronouncements.

21. Cheek, “From Priests to Professionals,” 200.

22. Sun Yat- sen,
San min chu i
, 12.

23. Duara,
Culture, Power, and the State
, 248.

24. Fitzgerald,
Awakening China
.

25. Cited from Schram,
The Thought of Mao Tse- tung
, 46.

26. For the Communist social restructuring prior to their victory, see, e.g. Perry,
Rebels and Revolutionaries
, 239–247.

27. This generalization should be qualified with the knowledge that many elite families were able to survive the land reform upheaval and even join the new regime (for one example, see, e.g., He, “The Death of a Landlord,” especially pp. 131–133). These and other exceptions notwithstanding, it remains true that the landowning rural elite disappeared as a distinct social stratum in the aftermath of the Land Reform.

28. For the nature of the Great Leap Forward, see Lieberthal, “The Great Leap Forward”; cf. MacFarquhar,
The Origins of the Cultural Revolution 2
; for early campaigns, see, e.g., Teiwes, “The Establishment and Consolidation.”

29. The reasons for the launch of the Cultural Revolution are still obscure despite the best efforts of the most profound analysts (e.g., Lieberthal, “The Great Leap Forward”; MacFarquhar,
The Origins of the Cultural Revolution
, vols. 1–3; Harding, “The Chinese State in Crisis”). Among other sources of intraParty conflict, Mao’s attempts to launch mass campaigns in the early 1960s, and

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the recalcitrant attitude of the Party establishment toward these initiatives, figure prominently.

30. For Mao’s purge of some of his rivals through the normal intraparty procedure just a few weeks before the launch of the mass campaigns of the Cultural Revolution, see MacFarquhar and Shoenhals,
Mao’s Last Revolution
, 14–51. For the events of the Cultural Revolution, see MacFarquhar and Shoenhals,
Mao’s Last Revolution
, and Harding, “The Chinese State in Crisis.”

31. For local protests in contemporary China and the parallels with the past, see Perry, “Permanent Rebellion?”; for the political impact of the Internet, see Zheng,
Technological Empowerment
.

32. For an interesting example of the Party’s attempt to co- opt private entrepreneurs, see Dickson,
Red Capitalists
; for more recent developments, see Li Cheng, “The Chinese Communist Party.”

33. See Bell,
China’s New Confucianism
, especially pp. 175–191.

34. See chapter 2, note 11.

35. See Dickson,
Red Capitalists
, and Li Cheng, “The Chinese Communist Party,” for some preliminary estimates.

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