The Fever: How Malaria Has Ruled Humankind for 500,000 Years (46 page)

 
80
.
Alabama Power Co. v. Carden
, Supreme Court of Alabama, 189 Ala. 384, 66 So. 596, November 7, 1914.

 
81
. Carter, “The Effect of Variation of Level of Impounded Water,” 575–78.

 
82
. Samuel W. Welch, “Annual Report of the State Board of Health of Alabama,” Montgomery, Ala., December 31, 1917.

 
83
. “If it constructed the dam in compliance with the law it could not be guilty of negligence in causing the backing of the water,”
Burnett v. Alabama Power Company
, 199 Ala. 337, 74 So. 459, December 21, 1916.

 
84
. Theodore Steinberg,
Nature Incorporated: Industrialization and the Waters of New England
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 244; also Walter H. Voskuil,
The Economics of Water Power Development
(Chicago and New York: A.W. Shaw Company, 1928), 15; and Ackerknecht,
Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley
, 72.

 
85
. Ann Vileisis,
Discovering the Unknown Landscape: A History of America’s Wetlands
(Washington, D.C.: Island Press), 64, 67, 82.

 
86
. Half of the animals now endangered in the United States and a third of endangered plants hail from wetland habitats. Ibid., 123, 124, 270.

 
87
. Ackerknecht,
Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley
, 94.

 
88
. See
www.tva.gov/heritage/fdr/index.htm
; Andrew Spielman and Michael D’Antonio,
Mosquito: A Natural History of Our Most Persistent and Deadly Foe
(New York: Hyperion, 2001), 152.

 
89
. Margaret Humphreys,
Malaria: Poverty, Race, and Public Health in the United States
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 111; John Duffy, “Impact of Malaria on the South,” in Todd L. Savitt and James Harvey Young, eds.,
Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South
(Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988), 50.

 
90
. Voskuil,
The Economics of Water Power Development
, 146; T.H.D. Griffitts, “Impounded Waters and Malaria,”
Southern Medical Journal
19 (1926): 367–70; Carter, “The Effect of Variation of Level of Impounded Water,” 575–78.

 
91
. See
www.tva.gov/heritage/fdr/index.htm
; Spielman and D’Antonio,
Mosquito
, 152.

 
92
. Humphreys,
Malaria
, 142.

 
93
. Mark Overton, “Agricultural Revolution in England, 1500–1850,” available at
www.bbc.co.uk/history
.

 
94
. Hackett,
Malaria in Europe
, 89.

 
95
. Mark Overton, “The Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations in Early Modern England: Turnips and Clover in Norfolk and Suffolk, 1580–1740,”
Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers,
New Series, 10, no. 2 (1985): 205–21.

 
96
. E. L. Jones, “Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1660–1750: Agricultural Change,”
The Journal of Economic History
25, no. 1 (March 1965): 1–18.

 
97
. Hackett,
Malaria in Europe
, 56, 63, 69.

 
98
. Ibid., 64.

 
99
.
www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/
agricultural_revolution_02.shtml
.

100
. Letter from Dr. Livingstone to the editor,
Medical Times and Gazette
, January 26, 1863.

101
. Dobson, “ ‘Marsh Fever,’ ” 357–89.

   
1
. O. R. McCoy, “Malaria and the War,”
Science
100, no. 2607 (December 15, 1944): 535–39.

   
2
. Mark Harrison, “Medicine and the Culture of Command: The Case of Malaria Control in the British Army During the Two World Wars,”
Medical History
40 (1996): 437–52.

   
3
. Frank M. Snowden,
The Conquest of Malaria: Italy, 1900–1962
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), 188–89.

   
4
. Anne O’Hare McCormick, “Undoing the German Campaign of the Mosquito,”
New York Times
, September 13, 1944.

   
5
. Snowden,
The Conquest of Malaria
, 196–97.

   
6
. John H. Perkins, “Reshaping Technology in Wartime: The Effect of Military Goals on Entomological Research and Insect-Control Practices,”
Technology and Culture
19, no. 2 (April 1978): 169–86.

   
7
. Christopher J. Bosso,
Pesticides and Politics: The Life Cycle of a Public Issue
(Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987), 30.

   
8
. George W. Ware and David M. Whitacre,
The Pesticide Book
, 6th ed. (Willoughby, Ohio: MeisterPro Information Resources, 2004); “Toxicological Profile for DDT, DDE, and DDD,” Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry, 2002; International Programme on Chemical Safety, “Global Assessment of the State-of-the-Science of Endocrine Disruptors,” World Health Organization, 2002.

   
9
. Ware and Whitacre,
The Pesticide Book
; Edmund Russell, “The Strange Career of DDT: Experts, Federal Capacity, and Environmentalism in World War II,”
Technology and Culture
40 (1999): 770–96.

 
10
. Bosso,
Pesticides and Politics
, 30.

 
11
. “Public to Receive DDT Insecticide,”
New York Times
, July 27, 1945.

 
12
. Bosso,
Pesticides and Politics
, 31.

 
13
. Perkins, “Reshaping Technology in Wartime,” 169–86.

 
14
. Waldemar KaemPeffert, “DDT, the Army’s Insect Powder, Strikes a Blow Against Typhus and for Pest Control,”
New York Times
, June 4, 1944.

 
15
. Joshua Blu Buhs,
The Fire Ant Wars: Nature, Science, and Public Policy in Twentieth-century America
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 69.

 
16
. E. P. Russell III, “Speaking of Annihilation: Mobilizing for War Against Human and Insect Enemies, 1914–1945,”
Journal of American History
82 (1996): 1505–29.

 
17
. Ibid.

 
18
. James Whorton,
Before Silent Spring: Pesticides and Public Health in Pre-DDT America
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974), 249.

 
19
. Blu Buhs,
The Fire Ant Wars
, 68.

 
20
. Russell, “Speaking of Annihilation,” 1505–29.

 
21
. Clay Lyle, “Achievements and Possibilities in Pest Eradication,”
Journal of Economic Entomology
40 (February 1947): 1–8.

 
22
. Bosso,
Pesticides and Politics
, 81.

 
23
. Quoted in Gordon Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man: A History of the Hostilities Since 1880
(New York: E. P. Dutton, 1978), 223.

 
24
. John Farley,
To Cast Out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913–1951)
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 143.

 
25
. Ibid., 130.

 
26
. John Duffy, ed.,
Ventures in World Health: The Memoirs of Fred Lowe Soper
(Washington, D.C.: Pan American Health Organization, 1977), viii.

 
27
. Malcolm Gladwell, “The Mosquito Killer: Millions of People Owe Their Lives to Fred Soper. Why Isn’t He a Hero?”
The New Yorker
, July 2, 2001.

 
28
. Farley,
To Cast Out Disease
, 144.

 
29
. Quoted in Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 223.

 
30
. Peter J. Brown, “Malaria,
Miseria,
and Underpopulation in Sardinia: The ‘Malaria Blocks Development’ Cultural Model,”
Medical Anthropology
17 (1997): 239–54.

 
31
. Ibid.

 
32
. John N. Popham, “Report Progress in Malaria Fight,”
New York Times
, December 7, 1948.

 
33
. Blu Buhs,
The Fire Ant Wars
, 73; “DDT Saves the Pines,”
New York Times
, September 6, 1947; “Conservation: The Menace of DDT,”
New York Times
, March 1, 1959.

 
34
. Interview with Anna Opel, March 22, 2006.

 
35
. Sonia Shah,
Crude: The Story of Oil
(New York: Seven Stories, 2004), 18.

 
36
. Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 230–31; Andrew Spielman and Michael D’Antonio,
Mosquito: A Natural History of Our Most Persistent and Deadly Foe
(New York: Hyperion, 2001), 149.

 
37
. Snowden,
The Conquest of Malaria
, 205; Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 229; Andrew Spielman et al., “Time Limitation and the Role of Research in the World-wide Attempt to Eradicate Malaria,”
Journal of Medical Entomology
30, no. 1 ( January 1993): 6–19.

 
38
. Farley,
To Cast Out Disease
, 285.

 
39
. Gladwell, “The Mosquito Killer.”

 
40
. Randall Packard,
The Making of a Tropical Disease: A Short History of Malaria
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 144.

 
41
. “U.N. Gains Ground Against Malaria,”
New York Times
, June 7, 1952.

 
42
. M. J. Dobson et al., “Malaria Control in East Africa: The Kampala Conference and the Pare-Taveta Scheme: A Meeting of Common and High Ground,”
Parassitologia
42 (2000): 149–166.

 
43
. Perkins, “Reshaping Technology in Wartime,” 169–86.

 
44
. Russell, “The Strange Career of DDT,” 770–96.

 
45
. Paul F. Russell, “Lessons in Malariology from World War II,”
American Journal of Tropical Medicine
26 (1946): 5–13.

 
46
. “Public to Receive DDT Insecticide.”

 
47
. Russell, “Speaking of Annihilation,” 1505–29.

 
48
. Russell, “The Strange Career of DDT,” 770–96.

 
49
. Perkins, “Reshaping Technology in Wartime,” 169–86.

 
50
. Whorton,
Before Silent Spring
, 251.

 
51
. Bosso,
Pesticides and Politics
, 63.

 
52
. Perkins, “Reshaping Technology in Wartime,” 169–86.

 
53
. “Flies Resist DDT,”
New York Times
, October 31, 1948.

 
54
. WHO Expert Committee on Malaria, 1947, “Report on Dr. Pampana’s Mission to Greece and Italy,” WHO Docs., IC/Mal/8/21, August 1947, quoted in Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 233.

 
55
. “Flies Resist DDT.”

 
56
. Popham, “Report Progress in Malaria Fight.”

 
57
. Paul F. Russell,
Man’s Mastery of Malaria
(London: Oxford University Press, 1955), 148.