The Fever: How Malaria Has Ruled Humankind for 500,000 Years (45 page)

   
6
. Jon Kukla, “Kentish Agues and American Distempers: The Transmission of Malaria from England to Virginia in the Seventeenth Century,”
Southern Studies
25, no. 2 (Summer 1986): 135–47.

   
7
. William MacArthur, “A Brief Story of English Malaria,”
British Medical Bulletin
8, no. 1 (1951): 76–79.

   
8
. Stephen Frenkel and John Western, “Pretext or Prophylaxis? Racial Segregation and Malarial Mosquitoes in a British Tropical Colony: Sierra Leone,”
Annals of the Association of American Geographers
78, no. 2 ( June 1988): 211–28; J.W.W. Stephens and S. R. Christophers, “The Segregation of Europeans,” Report to the Malaria Committee of the Royal Society, October 1, 1900.

   
9
. John W. Cell, “Anglo-Indian Medical Theory and the Origins of Segregation in West Africa,”
The American Historical Review
91, no. 2 (April 1986): 307–35.

 
10
. Mark Harrison, “Medicine and the Culture of Command: The Case of Malaria Control in the British Army During the Two World Wars,”
Medical History
40 (1996): 437–52.

 
11
. W. E. Baker, T. E. Dempster, and H. Yule, “The Prevalence of Organic Disease of the Spleen as a Test for Detecting Malarious Localities in Hot Climates” (Calcutta: Office of Superintendent of Government Printing, 1868), 14; Ian Stone,
Canal Irrigation in British India
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 18–20.

 
12
. Elizabeth Whitcombe,
Agrarian Conditions in Northern India: The United Provinces Under British Rule, 1860–1900
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), 62–64, 88.

 
13
. David Arnold,
The New Cambridge History of India: Science, Technology, and Medicine in Colonial India
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 115.

 
14
. Whitcombe,
Agrarian Conditions in Northern India
, 25.

 
15
. From
www.rainwaterharvesting.org/Rural/Traditional2.htm#Beng
.

 
16
. Baker, Dempster, and Yule, “The Prevalence of Organic Disease of the Spleen,” 11.

 
17
. H. E. Shortt and P.C.C. Garnham, “Samuel Rickard Christophers, 27 November 1873–19 February 1978,”
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
25 (November 1979): 179–207.

 
18
. W. F. Bynum, “‘Reasons for Contentment’: Malaria in India, 1900–1920,”
Parassitologia
40 (1998): 19–27.

 
19
. Sheldon Watts, “British Development Policies and Malaria in India 1897–c. 1929,”
Past and Present
(November 1999): 141–81.

 
20
. Ibid., 141–81.

 
21
. Mridula Ramana, “Florence Nightingale and Bombay Presidency,”
Social Scientist
30, no. 9/10 (September–October 2002): 31–46.

 
22
. Raymond E. Dumett, “The Campaign Against Malaria and the Expansion of Scientific Medical and Sanitary Services in British West Africa, 1898–1910,”
African Historical Studies
1, no. 2 (1968): 153–97.

 
23
. J.W.W. Stephens, “Discussion on the Prophylaxis of Malaria,”
British Medical Journal
(September 17, 1904).

 
24
. Erwin H. Ackerknecht,
Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1945), 5, 23, 25, 39, 44.

 
25
. Ibid., 33–34.

 
26
. Marie D. Gorgas and Burton J. Hendrick,
William Crawford Gorgas: His Life and Work
(New York: Doubleday, Page and Company, 1924), 41; John M. Gibson,
Physician to the World: The Life of General William C. Gorgas
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1950), 27.

 
27
. Gibson,
Physician to the World
, 35, 40.

 
28
. Gorgas and Hendrick,
William Crawford Gorgas
, 6, 47; Paul Starr,
The Social Transformation of American Medicine
(New York: Basic Books, 1982), 81–85, 115–16.

 
29
. Gibson,
Physician to the World
, 35, 43, 50; Gordon Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man: A History of the Hostilities Since 1880
(New York: E. P. Dutton, 1978), 158–59; David McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 412.

 
30
. Gorgas and Hendrick,
William Crawford Gorgas
, 122; Gibson,
Physician to the World
, 67; McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 412, 415.

 
31
. McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 407–08, 423; Gibson,
Physician to the World
, 103, 126.

 
32
. James Stevens Simmons,
Malaria in Panama
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1939), 95; Gorgas and Hendrick,
William Crawford Gorgas
, 153; McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 416.

 
33
. Simmons,
Malaria in Panama
, 168;
David A. Warrell and Herbert M. Gilles, Essential Malariology
, 4th ed. (New York: Hodder Arnold, 2002), 331.

 
34
. Simmons,
Malaria in Panama
, 27; McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 416, 420.

 
35
. Gibson,
Physician to the World
, 134.

 
36
. Ibid., 105, 107, 119, 132; McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 421, 452.

 
37
. Gibson,
Physician to the World
, 123.

 
38
. Gorgas and Hendrick,
William Crawford Gorgas
, 164.

 
39
. McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 423.

 
40
. Ibid., 448, 451, 452, 458; Gibson,
Physician to the World
, 113–14.

 
41
. McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 467–68.

 
42
. Dumett, “The Campaign Against Malaria,” 153–97.

 
43
. Simmons,
Malaria in Panama
, 96; Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 166–67; McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 468; Gibson,
Physician to the World
, 150.

 
44
. Simmons,
Malaria in Panama
, 6, 36–50, 52, 56.

 
45
. “The Real Builders of the Panama Canal,”
New York Times
, October 22, 1912; B. W. Higman, “Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904–1981 (Review),”
American Historical Review
92 ( June 1987): 778.

 
46
. “Magoon Here, Replies to Poultney Bigelow,”
New York Times
, January 29, 1906, 1.

 
47
. Michael Conniff,
Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904–1981
(Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985), 32, 38.

 
48
. McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 576–77.

 
49
. “Panama Made Safe, Says Col. Gorgas,”
New York Times
, June 13, 1907.

 
50
. “Roosevelt Photo Gets Scant Applause,”
New York Times
, November 30, 1907.

 
51
. James L. A. Webb,
Humanity’s Burden: A Global History of Malaria
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 78.

 
52
. L. Schuyler Fonaroff, “Geographic Notes on the Barbados Malaria Epidemic,”
The Professional Geographer
18, no. 3 (May 1966): 155–63.

 
53
. From General Gorgas’s testimony in
L. D. Hand v. Alabama Power Company
, February 11, 1915, published in pamphlet form as
The Great Destroyers
by Robert L. Hughes, Anniston, Ala.

 
54
. Conniff,
Black Labor on a White Canal
, 30.

 
55
. McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 501, 582.

 
56
. “Gorgas’s Conquest of Disease,”
New York Times
, September 22, 1912, X7.

 
57
. McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 503, 587.

 
58
. “Roosevelt Photo Gets Scant Applause.”

 
59
. Gibson,
Physician to the World
, 179, 180, 209.

 
60
. Ibid., 165, 172, 176–77, 208.

 
61
. Malcolm Gladwell, “The Mosquito Killer: Millions of People Owe Their Lives to Fred Soper. Why Isn’t He a Hero?”
The New Yorker
, July 2, 2001.

 
62
. Gibson,
Physician to the World
, 184, 197.

 
63
. Henry Welles Durham, “The Clean-up of Panama,”
New York Times
, July 28, 1914, 6; L. H. Woolsey, “Executive Agreements Relating to Panama,”
American Journal of International Law
37, no. 3 ( July 1943): 482–89.

 
64
. H. R. Carter, “The Effect of Variation of Level of Impounded Water on the Control of
Anopheles
Production,”
Southern Medical Journal
17, no. 8 (August 1924): 575–78.

 
65
. Harvey H. Jackson,
Putting Loafing Streams to Work: The Building of Lay, Mitchell, Martin, and Jordan Dams, 1910–1929
(Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1997), 40.

 
66
. From General Gorgas’s testimony in
L. D. Hand v. Alabama Power Company
.

 
67
. Revised for clarity—original quote written phonetically. Jack Kytle, “I’m Allus Hongry,” in James Seay Brown, Jr., ed.,
Up Before Daylight: Life Histories from
the Alabama Writers’ Project, 1938–1939
(Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1982), 125–26.

 
68
. Jackson,
Putting Loafing Streams to Work
, 46.

 
69
. Letter from T.H.D. Griffitts to Henry Rose Carter, March 12, 1913, Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection, available at
www.etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/fever-browseprint?id=01022015
.

 
70
. Revised for clarity—original quote written phonetically. Kytle, “I’m Allus Hongry,” 125–26.

 
71
. W. H. Sanders, “Annual Report of the Board of Health of Alabama,” Montgomery, Ala.: December 1914.

 
72
. Harvey H. Jackson,
Putting Loafing Streams to Work
, 37, 51.

 
73
. Interview with Harvey Jackson, August 9, 2006.

 
74
. Revised for clarity—original quote written phonetically. Quoted in Jackson,
Putting Loafing Streams to Work
, 49, 52; Thomas Martin,
Forty Years of the Alabama Power Company, 1911–1951
(New York: Newcomen Society in North America, 1952), 13.

 
75
. From General Gorgas’s testimony in
L.D. Hand v. Alabama Power Company
.

 
76
.
Landrift D. Hand v. Louisville Nashville Railroad Company
, Circuit Court, Shelby County, Ala., December 11, 1914.

 
77
. Correspondence with Andrew Spielman, August 22, 2006.

 
78
. From General Gorgas’s testimony in
L.D. Hand v. Alabama Power Company
.

 
79
. Correspondence with Andrew Spielman, October 10, 2006; from General Gorgas’s testimony in
L.D. Hand v. Alabama Power Company
.