The Fever: How Malaria Has Ruled Humankind for 500,000 Years (44 page)

 
17
. Stephen H. Gillespie and Richard D. Pearson,
Principles and Practice of Clinical Parasitology
(Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley and Sons, 2001), 9.

 
18
. John Farley, “Parasites and the Germ Theory of Disease,”
Milbank Quarterly
67, suppl. 1 (1989): 50–68.

 
19
. Haynes,
Imperial Medicine
, 49–82.

 
20
. James Stevens Simmons,
Malaria in Panama
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1939), 8–9.

 
21
. Ibid., 18; David McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 134.

 
22
. McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 159, 174.

 
23
. Press dispatch from Panama, “Is M. de Lesseps a Canal Digger or a Grave Digger?”
Harper’s Weekly
, September 3, 1881.

 
24
. McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 144.

 
25
. “North River Malaria.”

 
26
. See, e.g., R. Patterson, “Dr. William Gorgas and His War with the Mosquito,”
Canadian Medical Association Journal
141 (6), September 15, 1989, 596.

 
27
. McCullough,
The Path Between the Seas
, 221–23.

 
28
. Patrick Manson, “On the Nature and Significance of the Crescentic and Flagellated Bodies in Malarial Blood,”
British Medical Journal
(December 8, 1894).

 
29
. Haynes,
Imperial Medicine
, 90.

 
30
. W. F. Bynum and Caroline Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito: The Correspondence of Ronald Ross and Patrick Manson
(Amsterdam and Atlanta, Calif.: Rodopi B.V., 1998), 55, 125.

 
31
. Mark Harrison,
Public Health in British India: Anglo-Indian Preventive Medicine, 1859–1914
(London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine), 1994.

 
32
. Ronald Ross,
Child of Ocean: A Romance
(London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1932), 118.

 
33
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
, 321.

 
34
. Ronald Ross, “The Third Element of the Blood and the Malaria Parasite,”
Indian Medical Gazette
, January 1894, 5–14.

 
35
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
, 5.

 
36
. Ibid., 1–321.

 
37
. Amico Bignami, “Hypotheses as to the Life-history of the Malarial Parasite Outside the Human Body,”
Lancet
(November 21, 1896).

 
38
. Ernesto Capanna, “Grassi
versus
Ross: Who Solved the Riddle of Malaria?”
International Microbiology
9 (2006): 69–74; Ronald Ross,
Memoirs
(London: John Murray, 1928), 337.

 
39
. Bignami, “Hypotheses as to the Life-history of the Malarial Parasite.”

 
40
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
, 85.

 
41
. Ibid., 133.

 
42
. Ibid., 279.

 
43
. Ibid., 291.

 
44
. Ibid., 336.

 
45
. Ross,
Memoirs
, 339.

 
46
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
, 355.

 
47
. Ibid., 387.

 
48
. Ibid., 341.

 
49
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
, 357.

 
50
. Ross,
Memoirs
, 341.

 
51
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
, 411.

 
52
. Ross,
Memoirs
, 355.

 
53
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
.

 
54
. Ross,
Memoirs
, 455.

 
55
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
, 396.

 
56
. Ibid., 289.

 
57
. Capanna, “Grassi
versus
Ross,” 69–74.

 
58
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
, 466.

 
59
. Lewis W. Hackett,
Malaria in Europe: An Ecological Study
(London: Oxford University Press, 1937), 12.

 
60
. Ibid., 12.

 
61
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
, 437.

 
62
. J. M. Hurley, “Is the Mosquito a Disseminator of Malaria?”
Pacific Medical Journal
48 (1905): 338–42, quoted in F. Ellis McKenzie and Ebrahim M. Samba, “The Role of Mathematical Modeling in Evidence-based Malaria Control,”
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
71, suppl. 2 (2004): 94–96.

 
63
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
, 390.

 
64
. Ross,
Memoirs
, 365.

 
65
. Harrison,
Public Health in British India
, 159.

 
66
. Ross,
Memoirs
, 430.

 
67
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
, 449.

 
68
. Quoted in N. H. Swellengrebel, “How the Malaria Service in Indonesia Came into Being, 1898–1948,”
The Journal of Hygiene
48, no. 2 ( June 1950): 146–57.

 
69
. Snowden,
The Conquest of Malaria
, 46.

 
70
. Hackett,
Malaria in Europe
, 16.

 
71
. Ross,
Memoirs
, 415.

 
72
. S. R. Christophers, Second Report of the Anti-malarial Operations at Mian Mir, 1901–1903: Scientific Memoirs by the officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India, 1904.

 
73
. Bynum and Overy, eds.,
The Beast in the Mosquito
; W. F. Bynum, “‘Reasons for Contentment’: Malaria in India, 1900–1920,”
Parassitologia
40 (1998): 19–27.

 
74
. Snowden,
The Conquest of Malaria
, 158.

 
75
. Sir Malcolm Watson,
African Highway: The Battle for Health in Central Africa
(London: John Murray Publishers, 1953), 236.

 
76
. James Whorton,
Before Silent Spring: Pesticides and Public Health in Pre-DDT America
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974), 6–41.

 
77
. L. O. Howard,
Fighting the Insects: The Story of an Entomologist
(New York: Arno Press, 1980).

 
78
. Andrew Spielman and Michael D’Antonio,
Mosquito: A Natural History of Our Most Persistent and Deadly Foe
(New York: Hyperion, 2001), 118; Gordon Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 168.

 
79
. John Farley,
To Cast Out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913–1951)
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 111.

 
80
. Ibid., 118.

 
81
. Quoted in Hugh Evans, “European Malaria Policy in the 1920s and 1930s: The Epidemiology of Minutiae,”
Isis
80, no. 301 (March 1989): 40–59.

 
82
. Gordon Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 185.

 
83
. Hackett,
Malaria in Europe
, 16.

 
84
. Howard,
Fighting the Insects
, 120.

 
85
. Hackett,
Malaria in Europe
, 40–41.

 
86
. Paul F. Russell, “Identification of the Larvae of the Three Common
Anopheline
Mosquitoes of the Southern United States,”
American Journal of Epidemiology
5 (March 1925): 149–74.

 
87
. Hackett,
Malaria in Europe
, 273.

 
88
. Ibid., 235.

 
89
. Ibid., 266.

 
90
. “Will Tropical Medicine Move to the Tropics?”
Lancet
347, no. 9002 (1995).

 
91
. David Arnold,
The New Cambridge History of India: Science, Technology, and Medicine in Colonial India
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 145–46.

 
92
. E. Richard Brown, “Public Health in Imperialism: Early Rockefeller Programs
at Home and Abroad,”
American Journal of Public Health
66, no. 9 (1976): 897–903.

 
93
. William E. Collins and John W. Barnwell, “A Hopeful Beginning for Malaria Vaccines,”
New England Journal of Medicine
359 (December 11, 2008): 2599–601; Judith E. Epstein, “What Will a Partly Protective Malaria Vaccine Mean to Mothers in Africa?”
Lancet
370, no. 9598 (November 3, 2007): 1523–24.

 
94
. Ben C. L. van Schaijk et al., “Gene Disruption of
Plasmodium falciparum p52
Results in Attenuation of Malaria Liver Stage Development in Cultured Primary Human Hepatocytes,”
PLoS One
3, no. 10 (October 28, 2008); Jason Fagone, “The Scientist Ending Malaria with His Army of Mosquitoes,”
Esquire
, December 8, 2008.

 
95
. Louis Miller, quoted in Susan Okie, “Betting on a Malaria Vaccine,”
New England Journal of Medicine
353 (November 3, 2005): 1877–81.

 
96
. Mary Moran et al.,
The Malaria Product Pipeline: Planning for the Future
(Sydney, Australia: George Institute for International Health, 2007).

 
97
. Interview with Dyann Wirth, March 10, 2008.

 
98
. Kathryn S. Aultman et al., “
Anopheles gambiae
Genome: Completing the Malaria Triad,”
Science
298, no. 5591 (October 4, 2002): 13; “Gateses Give Record $5 Billion Gift to Foundation,”
New York Times
, June 3, 1999.

 
99
. Visit to Dyann Wirth lab, Harvard School of Public Health, Cambridge, Mass., March 10, 2008.

   
1
. M. J. Dobson, “‘Marsh Fever’: The Geography of Malaria in England,”
Journal of Historical Geography
, 6, no. 4 (1980): 357–89.

   
2
. Paul Reiter, “From Shakespeare to Defoe: Malaria in England in the Little Ice Age,”
Emerging Infectious Diseases
6, no. 1 ( January–February 2000): 1–11.

   
3
. Dobson, “ ‘Marsh Fever,’ ” 357–89.

   
4
. Ibid., 357–89.

   
5
. Lewis W. Hackett,
Malaria in Europe: An Ecological Study
(London: Oxford University Press, 1937), 174.