The Particle at the End of the Universe: How the Hunt for the Higgs Boson Leads Us to the Edge of a New World (50 page)

and symmetry, 152, 213

unification with weak force, 231

electron neutrinos, 48–49, 159, 257, 291

electrons

and atomic structure, 10–11, 29, 41, 42–43

and Higgs decay modes,
173

interaction with Higgs boson, 143

and linear accelerators, 66

and mass, 60, 145

and neutron decay, 133–34

and particle detectors, 104, 108–10,
109

and particle spin, 129, 285, 288, 291

and resting value of Higgs field, 146

and size of atoms, 145–46

and solidity of matter, 28

and supersymmetry, 257

and symmetry, 149, 159

and weak interactions, 159

electron volt (eV) measure, 55, 59,
59

electroweak phase transition, 161

electroweak theory, 257–61

electroweak unification, 232–34, 235

elementary particles, 8–11, 27.
See also
specific particles

elements, 10

Ellis, John, 174, 183, 191

energy/mass equivalency, 34, 57–61, 86, 142–44

Englert, François, 183, 221–26, 228, 238–41

entertainment industry, 204–8

entropy, 267

Epicurus, 279, 280

Euclidean geometry, 124

European Organization for Nuclear Research, 61

European Physical Society Prize, 64

Evans, Lyn

and design of the LHC, 81–83, 241

and explosion at the LHC, 76

and inauguration of the LHC, 4

and new collider proposals, 277

and physics beyond the Standard Model, 18

retirement, 90–91

expansion of space, 246, 254–55

experimentation vs. theory, 8, 192–93

The
Fabric of Reality
(Deutsch), 126

Faraday, Michael, 14, 121–22

Fawell, Harris, 24

Fermi, Enrico, 8, 47, 132, 155, 228–30

Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab)

competition with CERN, 65–69

and Congressional hearings, 269

D Zero experiment, 199–200

maximum energies achieved, 86

and predecessors of the LHC, 16

and top quark discovery, 136–37

fermions

and antimatter, 43–44

and atomic structure, 28–29

and the Big Bang, 161

and boson forces, 52

and connection fields, 162

described, 293–95,
294

detection of, 41

fermionic fields, 131–33, 217

and Feynman diagrams, 167–68

and Higgs decay modes,
173

mass of, 143,
294

and neutron decay, 132

and particle spin, 158, 285–86, 290–94

and quantum field theory, 33

and string theory, 262

and supersymmetry, 257–58,
259,
261

Fermi
telescope, 251–52

Feynman, Richard, 101, 167, 213, 229, 237

Feynman diagrams

and dark matter,
251

described, 167

and Englert and Brout model, 223

and gluon fusion to create Higgs, 166–67, 167–69,
168

and Higgs decay modes,
173,
188

and weak interactions, 229

fields and field theory, 31–35, 118–20, 123–28, 220

fine-structure constant, 252–53

fixed-target experiments, 62

“flavor” symmetries, 150

force-carrying particles, 5, 11, 28–29, 131, 283.
See also
bosons

Ford, Kent, 244

Forester, James, 68

fossil hunting, 94

Franck, James, 209–10

Franklin, Benjamin, 121, 271

Freese, Katherine, 250

Freund, Peter, 216

Friedman, Jerome, 66

From Eternity to Here
(Carroll), 255, 267

funding for physics research, 17–18, 69–73, 80–83, 269–70

fuzziness of quantum mechanics, 34

Gaillard, Mary K., 174

Galileo, 156

gamma rays, 251

Gargamelle experiment, 162, 237

gauge bosons

and connection fields, 153

and development of the Higgs model, 222–24, 231, 233, 236

and electroweak unification, 233

and particle spin, 286, 291

and symmetry, 52, 160, 213

gauge invariance, 151

gauge symmetry

and connection fields, 153–54

and development of the Higgs model, 219–20, 222–23,
225,
227, 236, 239

and superconductivity, 211, 212

Geer, Steve, 180

Gell-Mann, Murray, 50

general relativity, 14, 123–24

Gianotti, Fabiola

and announcement of Higgs discovery, 164–65, 183–84

and the arts, 277

on data transmission system, 113

and inauguration of the LHC, 4, 6

and memo leaks, 203

and OPERA experiment findings, 195–97

and physics beyond the Standard Model, 18

Gilbert, Walter, 220–21

Ginzburg, Vitaly, 214–15

Giudice, Gian, 90

Glashow, Sheldon, 232–34, 236–37

global positioning system (GPS), 14

global symmetries, 151

gluons

and connection fields, 153

and creation of Higgs bosons, 166–67, 167–69,
168

evidence of, 64

and Feynman diagrams,
168

and Higgs decay modes,
171,
172

masslessness of, 143

and nuclear forces, 30

and particle detectors, 96–97, 97–98, 103–4

and particle spin,
53,
286

and proton collisions,
102

and quantum field theory, 33, 129

and the Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collider (RHIC), 67–68

and strong interactions, 156

and supersymmetry,
259

and virtual particles, 101

The
God Particle
(Lederman and Teresi), 20

“God Particle” term, 19, 37

Goldstone, Jeff, 217, 220–25, 239, 241

gravatinos, 286

gravitons

and connection fields, 153

and force of gravity, 29

masslessness of, 143

and particle detector findings, 104–5

and particle spin, 52,
53,
288

and quantum field theory, 33, 130

gravity

and dark matter, 64, 143, 247–48

and field theory, 117, 123–25

gravitational fields, 33, 63–64, 118–20

gravitational lensing, 143

gravitational waves, 124–25

and the hierarchy problem, 254

particle associated with, 29

and particle spin, 52, 286, 291

and quantum field theory, 33, 130

and quantum mechanics, 25, 29

and the Standard Model, 26

and superconductivity, 211

and symmetry, 152, 154, 213

and vacuum energy, 221

See also
quantum gravity

Grazer, Brian, 204–5

Great Pyramid of Giza, 106

Greece, ancient, 7, 10, 279

Greek Security Team, 113–14

Green, Michael, 262

Gross, David, 30

Guinness Book of World Records, 67

Gunion, John, 174

Guralnik, Gerald, 183, 222, 225–28, 233–34, 238–41

Haber, Howard, 174

hackers, 113–14

hadronic calorimeters,
107,
107–10,
109

hadrons

discovery of, 50–52, 56

and Higgs decay modes, 172

and nuclear forces, 30

origin of term, 48

and particle colliders, 63, 96, 103,
109

types of, 294

Hagen, Carl Richard, 183, 222, 225–28, 233–34, 238–41

Hahnemann, Samuel, 39

Han dynasty, 121

hardening of electronics, 108

Hawking, Stephen, 21, 211, 255

Heisenberg, Werner, 155

helicity of particles, 290–92

Hellman, Hal, 55

Hertz, Heinrich, 122, 271

Heuer, Rolf, 3, 16

Hewett, JoAnne, 1–3, 6, 14, 17–18, 70, 282

hierarchy problem, 254, 255–56, 260–61, 265–66

Higgs, Peter

and announcement of Higgs discovery, 183, 185

and development of the Higgs mechanism, 222–28, 239–41

on “God Particle” term, 20

and Higgs boson name, 11–12, 238

and inauguration of the LHC, 5

Sakurai Prize, 240

Higgs bosons

announcement of, 3–4, 6, 12, 183–85

and connection fields, 153

creation of, 166–67, 167–69,
168

and dark matter, 248–49, 249–52,
251

decay modes of, 16, 54, 170–74,
171,
173,
173,
184–88

discovery of, 5–6, 78–79, 175, 181–85

early indications of, 64

and Feynman diagrams, 166–67, 167–69,
168,
173