The Passport in America: The History of a Document (56 page)

104
. Donald H. Avery, “Canadian Workers and American Immigration Restriction: A Case Study of the Windsor Commuters, 1924–1931,”
Mid-America
80 (1998): 235–63.

105
. For a detailed description of the bathing process, see John W. Tappen, “The Medical Inspection of Immigrants with Special Reference to the Texas-Mexican Border,”
Texas State Journal of Medicine
15 (July 1919), 122. On the continuation of this practice in the 1920s, see Mae M. Ngai “Illegal Aliens and Alien Citizens: United States Immigration Policy and Racial Formation, 1924–1945” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1998), 165–66.

106
. Ngai,
Impossible Subjects
, 7, 54–55, 67–71.

107
. Lawrence A. Cordoso,
Mexican Emigration to the United States, 1897–1931: Socio-economic Patterns
(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1980), 130.

108
. Leon A. Dickinson, “New England Offers ‘Ideal’ Mountain Trip,”
New York Times
, July 14, 1929.

109
.
New York Times
, “Answers Criticism by Border Tourists,” July 17, 1929, 26.

110
. Senate Committee on Commerce,
Border Patrol Part 1–3: Hearings before the Committee on Commerce
, 71st Cong., 2nd sess., December 18, 1930, January 15, 1931, 60.

111
. Remsen Crawford, “Halt! Who’s There!”
Saturday Evening Post
, January 7, 1928, 202.

112
. Ibid., 197.

113
.
New York Times
, “Boundary Line Bars Owner From House,” October 23, 1932.

114
. For a detailed discussion of this see Craig Robertson, “Locating the Border,”
Social Identities
14 (2008): 447–56.

115
. House Committee on the Judiciary,
To Establish a Border Patrol: Hearings before the Committee on the Judiciary
, 69th Cong., 1st sess., April 12, 19, 1926, 17.

116
. U.S. Statutes at Large 43 (1925): 1049; Memorandums: August 21, 1924, August 30, 1924, September 2, 1924, RG 85, 53108/22, National Archives; Wilmuth to Comm.-Gen. of Immigration, April 24, 1930, RG 85 E9. 55688/876, National Archives; House Committee on the Judiciary,
To Establish a Border Patrol
; House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization,
Immigration Border Patrol: Hearings
, 70th Cong., 1st sess., March 5, 1928; House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce,
Border Patrol: Hearings
, 71st Cong., 2nd sess., April 24, 25, 1930; Senate Committee on Commerce,
Border Patrol
.

117
. White to Secretary of State, August 25, 1924, RG 59 811.111/4322.

118
. White, “Ellis Island Altered.”

119
. For very-long-term residents, it often proved impossible to locate records of entry from the prewar period. In these situations an alien resident had to locate two witnesses who could swear to their long-term residence, and then pay $20 to get a certificate of arrival (
New York Times
, “Re-Entry Delay Defended,” May 30, 1932).

120
. Day to Comm.-Gen. of Immigration, March 15, 1930, RG 85 55630/4A, National Archives.

121
.
New York Times
, “Wheeler Assails Alien Registration,” February 17, 1930;
New York Times
, “Alien Registration Scored as Czaristic,” January 10, 1926.

122
.
New York Times
, “Davis for Listing Aliens,” March 3, 1922;
New York Times
, “Plans Annual Fees By Resident Aliens,” March 12, 1922; James J. Davis, “Who Are the American People?”
The Saturday Evening Post
, December 8, 1923, 29.

123
.
The Saturday Evening Post
, “Why Not Register Them?” March 22, 1930, 24.

C
HAPTER
11

1
. Irving E. Dooe, “A Passport Abroad,”
New York Sun
, November 28, 1919.

2
.
Washington Post
, “The Passport System,” July 31, 1920.

3
. U.S. Passport Office,
The United States Passport: Past, Present, Future
(Washington, DC: GPO, 1976), 220–21.

4
. Pamela Sankar, “State Power and Record-Keeping: The History of Individualized Surveillance in the United States, 1790–1935” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1992), 24.

5
. Alexander S. Banks, “Who is Respectable?”
New York Times
, April 27, 1924.

6
.
Literary Digest
, “Red Tape Worse Than Barbed-Wire Entanglements in Central Europe,” January 22, 1921, 48.

7
.
Living Age
, “Passport Adventures,” June 26, 1920, 788.

8
.
New York Times
, “Outlook for Touring in Europe Next Autumn,” May 18, 1919.

9
. T. R. Ybarra, “Passport Worries in Europe,”
New York Times
, February 6, 1921.

10
.
New York Times
, “Passport Levies Hit Travel, He Says,” November 26, 1922. See also
New York Times
, “Swiss Are Demanding Easier Passport Law,” April 17, 1921.

11
. Ybarra, “Passport Worries,” 10.

12
.
New York Evening Post
, “Passports and Postage,” October 4, 1920, 8; League of Nations, Organization for Communication and Transit,
Passport Conference Held at Geneva from May 12th to 18th, 1926
(Geneva, Switzerland: The League of Nations, 1926).

13
. League of Nations,
Passport Conference
, 70.

14
. F. P. Walters,
A History of the League of Nations
(London: Oxford University Press, 1952); F.S. Northedge,
The League of Nations: Its Life and Times, 1920–1946
(Leicester, UK: Leicester University Press, 1986); United Nations Library,
The League of Nations in Retrospect: Proceedings of the Symposium
(New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1983).

15
. League of Nations,
Passport Conference
, 57.

16
. Michael R. Marrus,
The Unwanted: European Refugees in the Twentieth Century
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 93.

17
. League of Nations,
Passport Conference
, 42.

18
. Ibid., 28.

19
. Ibid., 81.

20
. Ibid., 36.

21
. Ibid., 81.

22
. Helen Woodbury, “A New Era in Travel,”
Independent
, October 3, 1925, 391.

23
. James Collins, “The Steerage Puts On a White Collar,”
Saturday Evening Post
, September 27, 1924, 16.

24
. The Bureau of Immigration also contributed to the ongoing separation of immigrants when it loosened its requirement that all third-class passengers be inspected on shore at an immigration station. Inspectors were given permission to inspect “third class passengers who are apparently non-immigrants” on board
(
New York Times
, “Third Class Tourists To Escape Detention,” November 14, 1925).

25
. Collins, “Steerage,”17.

26
. Bunice Fuller Barnard, “The Swelling Tide of Foreign Travel,”
New York Times
, May 6 1928.

27
. In 1928 430,955 citizens left the United States, though it is unknown how many of those people were travelers. The percentage of citizens who left the United States was consistently around 0.3% from 1900–1930. See
Literary Digest
, “Our Tourists a Large Factor in World Finance,” June 8, 1929, 68. See also Christopher Endy, “Travel and World Power: Americans in Europe, 1890–1917,”
Diplomatic History
22 (1998): 567.

28
.
Literary Digest
, “Our Tourists,” 68.

29
. Thomas Craven, “New Innocents Abroad,”
Forum
, April 1930, 239–44.

30
. Ibid.

31
.
New York Times
, “Why Our Citizens Go Abroad,” March 9, 1930.

32
. The prewar figure refers to the net expenditure—that is, the amount of money foreign tourists spent in the United States subtracted from the total spent abroad by U.S. citizens. The equivalent figure for 1922 was $300 million (
Literary Digest
, “Our Tourists,” 68).

33
. Ibid.;
New York Times
, “England Plans World Publicity Campaign to Attract Larger Share of Tourists’ Millions,” January 19, 1930.

34
.
Literary Digest
, “Our Tourists Turning Tightwad,” September 13, 1930, 54–55.

35
.
New York Times
, “‘Invisible Exports’ a Billion Says Klein,” July 18, 1932.

36
.
New York Times
, “Americans Pay High Passport Charges,” January 16, 1921; see also
New York Times
, “Passport Prices Mount,” September 14, 1920.

37
. Herbert Kahn, “Passports and Visas,”
New York Times
, May 21, 1929.

38
.
Washington Post
, “Raise In Passport Fees For Americans Who Live Abroad,” August 15, 1920.

39
. House Committee on Foreign Affairs,
Fees Charged for Passports and for Viséing Foreign Passports: Hearings before the Committee on Foreign Affairs
, 66th Cong., 2nd sess., February 3, 4, 7, 1920, 44.

40
. Farrell to Hanna, May 10, 1922, RG 59 138.101/272, Box 634, National Archives.

41
. Mead to Sen. Calder, April 12, 1921, RG 59 138.101/225, National Archives; Boston Chamber of Commerce to Secretary of State, April 20, 1922, RG 59 138.101/272, National Archives; Secretary, National Foreign Trade Council to Secretary of State, January 23, 1924, RG 59 138.101/312, National Archives; “Resolution: Chamber of Commerce of New York,” February 7, 1924, RG 59138.101/313, National Archives;
New York Times
, “Wants Passports Ended,” October 27, 1924;
New York Times
, “Want Cheaper Passports,” December 22, 1924;
New York Times
, “Would Speed Canal Funds,” January 15, 1925;
New York Herald
, “Businessmen Want Passport Abolished,” October 7, 1922.

42
. Brist to Adee, January 13, 1922, RG 59 138.101/266, National Archives; RG 59 138.101/266, National Archives.

43
.
New York Times
, “Asks Visa Fee Cut to $2,” May 6, 1922;
New York Times
, “Porter for Easing Passport Trouble,” August 3, 1923.

44
. Snow to Secretary of State, December 22, 1921, RG 59 138.101/250, National Archives.

45
.
New York Times
, “What Do We Care For Abroad?” February 17, 1921; Herbert A. Sillco, “Passport Fees Too High,”
New York Times
, February 23, 1921.

46
.
New York Times
, “Americans Abroad to Pay Higher Fees,” December 13, 1921;
Washington Post
, “Cost of Passports Nearly as Great as Fare Over Atlantic,” August 19, 1923.

47
. E. F. Strickland, “Would Abolish Passports,”
New York Times
, November 9, 1924.

48
. “RLF” to Nielsen, October 22, 1921, RG 59 138.101/266, National Archives.

49
. “RLF” to Brist, October 16, 1920, RG 59 811.111/29834, National Archives.

50
. Lodge to Merchants Assoc. of New York, October 21, 1921, RG 59 138.101/249, National Archives. Also see Lodge to Merchants Assoc. of New York, June 30, 1921, RG 59 138.101/249, National Archives.

51
.
Outlook
, “The Question of Passports,” April 7, 1926, 512.

52
. House Committee on Foreign Affairs,
Validity of Passports: Hearing before the Committee on Foreign Affairs
, 69th Cong., 1st sess., May 12, 1926, 10, 17, 18.

53
. Edwin L. James, “Protest on Visas Expected in Paris,”
New York Times
, October 30, 1927; A. Victim, “Passport Difficulties,”
New York Times
, March 17, 1929.

54
. By 1928 the U.S. government had signed agreements with thirty countries, twenty-two of which waived the need for U.S. citizens to acquire visas (
New York Times
, “Travelers Now Save on Passport Visas,” April 28, 1929).

55
. In 1936 the most expensive visas for U.S. citizens were for Russia ($17.37) and Greece ($14.60); Carlisle McDonald, “Visa Fee Cut to $2 By France and U.S.,”
New York Times
, May 14, 1929;
New York Times
, “Britain To Agree on Visa Fee Cut,” December 1, 1936; Helen Dallas, “Cost of Visas is Declining,”
New York Times
, December 6, 1936.