The Passport in America: The History of a Document (53 page)

78
. Foster to Newberry, July 21, 1892, RG 59 Diplomatic Instructions, Turkey M77 R.166: 369–71, National Archives; Bayard [Secretary of State], “No. 700: To diplomatic officers abroad,” February 23, 1887, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1887, 1034.

79
. Adee to Conger, August 24, 1899, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1899, 185–87.

80
. Before 1873 a passport was valid for a maximum of one year, though those who chose to carry one were encouraged to get a new passport for every journey abroad. Moore,
A Digest of International Law
, 3:977–83.

81
. Hunt,
American Passport
, 134.

82
. 15 Stat. L. 233; I-Mien Tsiang, “The Question of Expatriation in America Prior to 1907,” (PhD diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1941), 86–88, 95–100; Richard W. Flournoy Jr., “Naturalization and Expatriation,”
Yale Law Journal
31 (1922): 714; Gaillard Hunt, “The New Citizenship Law,”
North American Review
185 (1907): 536; U.S. Department of Justice,
Official Opinions of the Attorneys-General of the United States
(Washington, DC: GPO, 1875), 14:295–96.

83
. Fish to Grant, August 15, 1873. Reprinted in Hunt,
American Passport
, 130, 134.

84
. Lincoln to Sherman, February 14, 1890, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1890, 324.

85
. Hunt,
American Passport
, 143.

86
. Huntington Wilson, “The American Foreign Service,”
Outlook
, March 3, 1906, 501.

87
. Dwight, “American Political Workers Abroad”; Lawrence E. Gelfand, “Towards a Merit System for the American Diplomatic Service 1900–1930,”
Irish Studies in International Affairs
2, no. 4 (1988): 49–63.

88
. H. C. Chatfield-Taylor, “American Diplomats in Europe,”
North American Review
, July 1896, 125–28; Waldo H. Heinrichs Jr. “Bureaucracy and Professionalism in the Development of American Career Diplomacy,” in
Twentieth-Century American Foreign Policy
, ed. John Braeman, Robert H Bremner, and David Brody (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1971), 119–206.

89
. Winchester to Bayard, August 26, 1885, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1885, 809–10.

90
. Frelinguysen to Sargent, July 26, 1883, RG 59 Diplomatic Instructions, Germany, XVII 293–95, National Archives.

91
. Winchester to Bayard, September 26, 1887, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1887, 1072.

92
. Wharton to Phelps, July 22, 1891, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1891, 515.

93
. Sherman to Hitchcock, December 22, 1897, RG 59 Diplomatic Instructions, Russia M77 R139: 656, National Archives.

94
. Ibid.

95
. Hay to White, February 23, 1899, RG 59 Diplomatic Instructions, Great Britain XXXIII: 97, National Archives.

96
. Bayard to McLane, October 29, 1888, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1888, 1:561.

97
. Hay to Hardy, June 7, 1901, RG 59 Diplomatic Instructions, Switzerland III 263, National Archives.

98
. Ibid.; Hay to Fletcher, February 4, 1901, RG 59 Domestic Letters 250:528, National Archives; Olney to Townsend, October 31, 1895, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1895, 24.

99
. Hunt,
American Passport
, 135; Blaine to Ryan, April 9, 1892, RG 59 Diplomatic Instructions Mexico M77 R119, 207, National Archives.

100
. Hay to Hardy, June 7, 1901, RG 59 Diplomatic Instructions, Switzerland III 263, National Archives.

101
. For a summary of NineteenthCentury passport policy towards missionaries, particularly with regards to missionaries resident in China, see Moore,
A Digest of International Law
, 3:971–75.

102
. Blaine to Grant, March 25, 1890, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1890, 12; Wharton to Thayer, March 22, 1892, RG 59 Diplomatic Instructions, Netherlands M77 R125: 118, National Archives.

103
. Matthew Frye Jacobson,
Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876–1917
(New York: Hill and Wang, 2000), 21, 28.

104
. Bayard to Winchester, October 12, 1887, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1887, 1074.

105
. Fish to Washburne, June 28 1873, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1873, 1:260.

106
. Blaine to Hirsch, June 18, 1890, RG 59 Diplomatic Instructions, Turkey M77 R166, 134–36, National Archives.

107
. Ibid.

108
. Fish to Davis, November 4, 1876, RG 59 Diplomatic Instructions Germany XVI, 252–55, National Archives.

109
. Blaine to Hirsch, June 18, 1890, RG 59 Diplomatic Instructions Turkey M77 R166, 134–36, National Archives.

110
. Ibid.

111
. Bayard to Winchester, June 9, 1886, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1886, 847.

112
. Adee to Conger, August 24, 1899, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1899, 186–87.

113
. Wilson to Iddings, January 31, 1907, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1907, 1082. See also Wilson to Beaupre, April 27, 1907, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1907, 1088.

114
. Moore,
A Digest of International Law
, 3:921.

115
. Bayard to Walker, March 29, 1888, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1888, 1:420.

116
. Adee to Conger, August 24, 1899, U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations
, 1899, 186.

117
. [Author unknown] to Bacon, February 14, 1907, RG 59 Numerical File, 3752/43, National Archives.

118
. Fahrmeir,
Citizens and Aliens
, 138.

119
.
Report on the Subject of the Citizenship of the United States, Expatriation and Protection Abroad
, 59th Cong. 2nd sess., H.R. Doc. 326; 34 Stat. L. 1228 (March 2, 1907).

120
.
Citizenship of the United States, Expatriation and Protection Abroad
, 14.

121
. Green Haywood Hackworth,
Digest of International Law
(Washington, DC: GPO, 1942), 3:538.

C
HAPTER
9

1
. E. P. Hutchinson,
Legislative History of American Immigration Policy, 1798–1965
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981).

2
. 22 Stat. 214; 26 Stat. 1084.

3
. Ian F. Haney-López,
White By Law: The Legal Construction of Race
(New York: New York University Press 1996), 100.

4
. Mae M. Ngai,
Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), 44.

5
. United States v. Thind, 261 U.S. 209, 211, (1923); Matthew Frye Jacobson,
Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 236, 222–23.

6
. Lucy E. Salyer,
Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995).

7
. Ibid., 201; Elizabeth Yew, “Medical Inspection of Immigrants at Ellis Island, 1891–1924,”
Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine
56 (1980): 494–95.

8
. Nayan Shah,
Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 186; Yew, “Medical Inspection of Immigrants,” 492.

9
. Amy L. Fairchild,
Science at the Borders: Immigrant Medical Inspection and the Shaping of the Modern Industrial Labor Force
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 109, 115.

10
. Yew, “Medical Inspection of Immigrants,” 495.

11
. Fairchild,
Science at the Borders
, 125.

12
. Alfred C. Reed, “The Medical Side of Immigration,”
Popular Science Monthly
, April 1912, 384–85.

13
. Jacobson,
Whiteness of a Different Color
, 72–73, 75.

14
. Estelle T. Lau,
Paper Families: Identity, Immigration Administration, and Chinese Exclusion
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 67.

15
. Although it affected U.S. border control in general, this decision was in a response to a case originating in the enforcement of the Chinese Exclusion Act (Chae Chan Ping v. United States, 130 U.S.. 601–10 [1889]); Salyer,
Laws Harsh as Tigers
, 23).

16
. U.S. Bureau of Immigration,
Annual Report of the Commissioner General of Immigration to the Secretary of Commerce and Labor
(Washington, DC: GPO, 1913), 182.

17
. For a detailed description of onboard inspection, see “Organization of the U.S. Emigrant Station at Ellis Island, New York, Together with a Brief Description of the Work Done in Each of its Divisions, October 23, 1903” in
Ellis Island, Statue of Liberty National Monument, New York-New
Jersey, ed. Harlan D. Unrau, (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1984), 2:312–53; and “Rules for the U.S. Immigrant Station at Ellis Island, February 1912,” in Unrau,
Ellis Island
, 434–46.

18
. Howe to Cmr.-Gen. Immigration, September 24, 1915, RG. 85, 53438/15, National Archives.

19
. Ibid.; Gelett Burgess, “The Steerage Revisited,”
Colliers
, April 16, 1910, 17–18; Shah,
Contagious Divides
, 184.

20
. Sargent to Hunt, June 16, 1908, RG 85 51831/106, National Archives. See also Fairchild,
Science at the Borders
, 125.

21
. Fairchild,
Science at the Borders
, 123. See also Thomas M. Pitkin,
Keepers of the Gate: A History of Ellis Island
(New York: New York University Press, 1975), 44, 64.

22
. Mary B. Sayles, “The Keepers of the Gate,”
Outlook
, December 28, 1907, 918.

23
. For discussions and analysis of immigration inspection at Ellis Island see Allan McLaughlin, “How Immigrants are Inspected,”
Popular Science Monthly
, February 1905, 357–61; Victor Safford,
Immigration Problems: Personal Experiences of an Official
(New York: Dodd Mead, 1925); Sayles, “The Keepers of the Gate”; Edith Abbott,
Immigration: Select Documents and Case Records
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1924), 244–51; Yew, “Medical Inspection of Immigrants”; Fairchild,
Science at the Borders
, 86–98.

24
. Alfred C. Reed, “Going Through Ellis Island,”
Popular Science Monthly
, January 1913, 6.

25
. E. K. Sprague, “Medical Inspection of Immigrants,”
Survey
30 (April–September 1913), 420–22.

26
. Edward A. Steiner,
On the Trail of the Immigrant
(New York: F. H. Revell, 1906), 67.

27
. Reed, “Medical Side of Immigration,” 386–87. For a similarly detailed outline of the medical inspection performed along the U.S./Mexican border, see John W. Tappen, “The Medical Inspection of Immigrants with Special Reference to the Texas-Mexican Border,”
Texas State Journal of Medicine
15 (July 1919): 120–24.

28
. Yew, “Medical Inspection of Immigrants,” 501.

29
. Reed, “Medical Side of Immigration,” 387; H. D. Geddings “Report to Surgeon-General, November 16, 1906,” in Unrau,
Ellis Island
, 671; Fairchild,
Science at the Borders
, 98.

30
. The subsequent description of the immigrant inspection comes from the following: Robert Watchorn, “The Gateway of the Nation,”
Outlook
, December 28, 1907, 897–911; Sayles, “Keepers of the Gate”; Pitkin,
Keepers of the Gate
, 67–72; Steiner,
On The Trail of the Immigrant
, 64–77; “Report from Inspectors of the Boarding Division,” January 22, 1914, RG 85 53438/15, National Archives.