The Pirate Queen (69 page)

From the National Archives, I relied heavily on the State Papers pertaining to Spain, Ireland, and the Low Countries, with the most helpful documents being SP 43 [English adventurers against Spain]; SP 12/78, 12/3, 12/7, 12/12 [Elizabeth’s reign]; SP 46/16, SP 46/17, SP 46/27, SP 941 [relating to Spain]; SP 94 [Walsingham’s spies]; SP 84/4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 [the Dutch Revolts]; and SP 99 [proclamations to pirates].

From the Archivio de Indias I found the testimonies contained in the manuscripts
Justicia
908, Indiferente General 742, 1866 and the Casa de Contratacion 5109, 5110 illuminating.

At the Folger Shakespeare Library the most helpful original manuscripts were MS V.a. 197, L.d. 66; L.d. 406; L.d. 403; L.d. 483; L.b. 516; V.b. 142 [Ireland], x.d. 200 [victualing] and L.d. 612. The printed
manuscript DA. 35089, representing a collection of state papers for the Tudor children’s reigns, edited by Samuel Haynes (London, 1740), was also useful.

From the Caird Library at the National Maritime Museum, Samuel Purchas’s
Purchas His Pilgrims,
vols. 1–2 (Glasgow, 1905), Sebastian Cabot’s
Memoirs
and Philip Barbour (ed.),
The Complete Works of Captain John Smith,
vol. 1 (Chapel Hill, 1986), were my primary sources.

General

I have also relied on the
Calendar of State Papers
—
Spain
, vols. 1–4, Martin A. S. Hume (ed.);
Rome
, vols. 1–2, J. M. Rigg (ed.) (1926);
Venice
, vols. 7–9, R. Brown and H. Brown (eds.) (London, 1890-1894);
Foreign
, Joseph Stevenson (ed.) (London, 1865-1870) and
Foreign
, Allan James Crosby (ed.) (London, 1871–1895). R. B. Wernham was the editor for the years 1596 until the end of Elizabeth’s reign.
The Calendar of State Papers—Scotland
, vols. 1–2, Joseph Bain (ed.) (Edinburgh, 1898);
Ireland
, 8 vols., H. C. Hamilton (ed.) (London, 1877) and E. G. Atkinson (ed.) (London, 1885–1903);
Colonial
, vol. 1; and
Domestic
, vols. 1–3, Mary Anne Everett Green (ed.) (London, 1867–1870). These State Papers, as well as the
Acts of the Privy Council
, J. R. Dasent (ed.) (London, 1886–1900), all were exceptionally valuable in increasing my understanding of the fears and diplomacy of the time, as well as in discerning Elizabeth’s true motivations—but frequently, when read in juxtaposition with one another (for example, by cross-referencing the same incident in three or more of the calendars, a different image would emerge than from reading a certain ambassador’s report to his king). All proved fascinating reading, particularly in relation to the growing concerns about English piracy, and putting these into context with the piratical acts of other nations.

The works of Richard Hakluyt, and in particular his
Principall Navigations
(London, 1598) in 26 volumes, gave clarity to the main voyages during Elizabeth’s long reign.

I found the works of Kenneth R. Andrews—
Trade, Plunder & Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire 1480–1630
(Cambridge, 1999),
The Spanish Caribbean
(London, 1978),
Elizabethan Privateering: English Privateering During the Spanish War 1585–1603
(Cambridge, 1964),
The Elizabethan Seaman
(Mariner’s Mirror, 69, London, 1982), and
Ships, Money & Politics
(Cambridge, 1991)—illuminating, fun, and essential reading. N. A. M. Rodger’s
The Safeguard of the Sea
(London, 2004) was both invaluable and reliable, and could hardly be considered a secondary source. Michael Oppenheim’s
A History of the Administration of the Royal Navy and Merchant Shipping in Relation to the Navy
(London, 1896); the six-volume
Sir William Monson’s Tracts
by Sir William Monson (London, 1625); Richard Hakluyt’s
Fighting Merchantman
(1927 printed edition) and his
Elizabethan Adventurers upon the Spanish Main
(1912 printed edition) were equally core sources. Without the fabulous groundbreaking (though now in parts somewhat out of date) work of Julian S. Corbett in his
Drake and the Tudor Navy
(Aldershot, England, 1988 Centenary reprint of vols. 1–2 of 1888) and his
Successors of Drake
(London, 1900), I would have undoubtedly had to dig much harder.

For general accounts and understanding how commerce worked, H. S. Cobb (ed.),
Corporation of London Records Office—The Overseas Trade of London: Exchequer Customs Accounts
(London, 1990); R. R. Sharpe (ed.),
Calendar of Letter Books Preserved Among the Archives of the City of London
, 11 vols. (London, 1899–1912);
Calendar of MSS Marquis of Salisbury
, 18 vols. (London, 1883); C. M. Clode (ed.),
Memoirs of the Merchant Taylors’ Company
(London, 1875);
Accounts for the Merchant Taylors’ Company
(London, 1875); Victor van Klarwill (ed.),
The Fugger News-letters: Second Series
(London, 1926); Henry Machlyn’s
The Diary of Henry Machlyn, Citizen and Merchant Taylor of London
(J. G. Nichols, ed.) (London, 1848); John Wheeler’s
A Treatise on Commerce
(London, 1601); William of Orange’s
A Discourse Consisting of Motives for the Enlargement and Freedom of Trade
(London, 1645), and Dudley Digges (ed.),
The Compleat Ambassador
(London, 1655) proved invaluable.

For Spanish sources, I widely consulted Irene A. Wright’s translations of original Spanish papers in
Documents Concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580
, vol. 1 (London, 1932); J. Calvar Gross (ed.),
La Batalia del Mar Océano
:
Génesis de la Empressa de Inglaterra de 1588
, vol. 1 (Madrid, 1988); and Geoffrey Parker’s
The Grand Strategy of Philip II
(New Haven, 2000), as well as
The Dutch Revolt
(London, 2002). I also referred to the
Archivio de Indias
in Seville, the
Legajos
from the
Casa de Contratacion
5109, 5110;
Justicia
908; the
Indiferente General
742, 1866; Panama 44, 45; and Santo Domingo 15, 51, 73, 81, 129, 184, and 186. In addition, I found Andrew Wheatcroft’s
The Hapsburgs
(London, 2004) fascinating reading.

Specific to the Low Countries, the works of Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove
Les Relations des Pays Bas et l’Angleterre
, vols. 1–4 of 11 volumes (Brussels, 1882) is equivalent to the Calendar of State Papers relating to English affairs for the period. John Stow’s
Survey of London
(London, 1598) is a fabulous research tool. The French ambassador’s letters expertly edited by A. Teulet,
Correspondance diplomatique de la Mothe Fénélon
, 7 vols. (Paris, 1838–1840), gives a different viewpoint that is illusive in English documents. Also, the
Correspondence du Cardinal de Granvelle 1565–1586
, 12 vols., E. Poullet and C. Piot (eds.) (Brussels, 1877-96) gave great insight.

Conyers Read’s
Mr Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth
(New York,
1955),
Mr Secretary Walsingham and the Policy of Queen Elizabeth
, vols. 1–3 (Oxford, 1925),
The Seizure of Alva’s Payships
in the Mariner’s Mirror (London, no. 21),
Lord Burghley and Elizabeth
(Oxford, 1925), and his
Walsingham and Burghley in Queen Elizabeth’s Privy Council
in the English Historical Review (London, no. xxvii, January 1913) are essential reading. Susan Brigden’s
New Worlds, Lost Worlds: The Rule of the Tudors 1485-1603
(London, 2001) provided a great overview of the period and helped to put me into the mind-set of the “ruling” Elizabethan classes (merchant and gentlemen adventurers or courtiers). John Guy’s
Tudor England
(Oxford, 1990) remains essential Tudor reading. J. E. Neale’s
Elizabeth I
(London, 2005 reprint) gives a highly readable overview of the queen and her dilemma regarding security, marriage, and Mary, Queen of Scots. Raphael Holinshed’s
Chronicles of England, Scotland, Ireland
(London, 1577), though widely seen as historically inaccurate today, provides again a good understanding of the Elizabethan mind-set.

Finally, the two great national resources,
The Dictionary of National Biography
(Oxford, 2003) and the
Oxford English Dictionary
(Oxford, 1998–2003) were widely consulted online. I cross-referenced virtually every person I wrote about in the
DNB
, and checked my sixteenth century meanings in the
OED
, both of which I subscribe to online.

Introduction

I consulted original papers from the High Court of the Admiralty, H.C.A. 24, Letters of Marque, Bonds, etc., 3, 1585, as well as State Papers, SP 46/179/32-31; SP 46/180/59A; SP 46/179/36-38; SP 94/2/ 78, 100. J. H. Parry’s
The Discovery of the Sea
(London, 1974) was most helpful in better understanding technical aspects of seamanship. Both Garett Mattingly’s
Defeat of the Spanish Armada
(London, 1959) and Felipe Fernàndez-Armesto’s
The Spanish Armada
(London, 2003) also provided source material. I also used the Folio Society’s edition of Richard Hakluyt’s
Tudor Venturers
(London, 1970).

Chapter 1.
The Lord’s Doing

Martin A. S. Hume (ed.), vol. 1 of the
Calendar of State Papers Relating to English Affairs with Spain
(London, 1892); Richard Starkey’s
Elizabeth
(London, 2000); Simon Schama’s
History of Britain
(London, 2000); and Geoffrey Parker’s
The Grand Strategy of Philip II
(London, 1998) were the main sources for this introductory chapter. J. Denucé’s original
Lettres Marchandes d’Anvers
(Brussels, 1961) was particularly helpful in my understanding of the concerns of everyday merchants in Antwerp at the time.

Chapter 2.
A Realm Exhausted

Aside from the general sources mentioned above, and in particular all of the
Calendar of State Papers
, for the relevant years, and
Acts of the Privy Council
, R. B. Wernham’s
Before the Armada
(1966) and
The Making of Elizabethan Foreign Policy 1558–1603
(1980) were particularly insightful; as was G. D. Ramsay’s
The City of London in International Politics at the Accession of Elizabeth Tudor
(Manchester, 1964) and W. E. Lingelbach’s
The Merchants Adventurers: Their Laws and Ordinances with Other Documents
(New York, 1971 edition).

Chapter 3.
The Queen, Her Merchants and Gentlemen

Again, aside from the specific and general sources above as well as the relevant
Calendars
and
Acts of the Privy Council
, Benjamin Woolley’s
The Queen’s Conjurer
(New York, 2001), Richard Deacon’s
John Dee: Scientist, Geographer, Astrologer and Secret Agent to Elizabeth I
(London, 1968), and Dee’s own
Diaries
and
The Perfecte Arte of Navigation
(London, 1577) provided the basis of the information on Dee in this chapter and others. Regarding Thomas Gresham, I referred to J. W. Burgon’s two-volume
The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham
(London, 1839) and Raymond de Roover’s
Gresham on Foreign Exchange
(Cambridge, USA, 1949), as well as Ann Saunders’s (ed.)
The Royal Exchange London
(London, 1997). The best books on Sir Nicholas Bacon and his family are
The Golden Lads
by Daphne du Maurier (London, 1977),
The Winding Stair
(London, 1976) also by du Maurier, and especially Robert Titler’s
Nicholas Bacon: The Making of a Tudor Statesman
(Athens, OH, 1976). J. A. Williamson’s
The Cabot Voyages & Bristol Discovery Under Henry VIII
(London, 1962) helped, too, to put the pre-Elizabethan voyages of “discovery” into context. Derek Wilson’s highly readable
Sweet Robin
(London, 1981) gives great insight into Robert Dudley’s relationship with Elizabeth and the greater world.

Chapter 4.
The Quest for Cash

On the value of English money at the time, and the effects of the debasement under Henry VIII, I consulted the definitive work by J. D. Gould,
The Great Debasement
(Oxford, 1970). In addition to naval texts mentioned above, Michael Oppenheim’s
A History of the Administration of the Royal Navy, 1509–1660
sheds interesting light on the problems facing the country, though I relied more heavily upon N. A. M. Rodger’s
Safeguard of the Sea
for the contents of this chapter, as well as appropriately dated
Calendars
,
APC
, letters from de Granvelle and Mothe Fénélon, and books on Gresham and Burghley.

Chapter 5. T
he Merchants Adventurers, Antwerp, and Muscovy

T. S. Willan’s
Studies in English Foreign Trade
(London, 1959), and S. L. Thrupp’s
The Merchant Class of Medieval London
(Chicago, 1948) supplemented W. E. Lingelbach’s
The Merchant Adventurers of England
(New York, 1971), W. T. MacCaffrey’s
The Shaping of the Elizabethan Regime 1558–72
(Princeton, 1968), and A. B. Beaven’s two-volume book
The Aldermen of the City of London
(London, 1908–13). G. D. Ramsay’s
City of London
and Kenneth Andrew’s
Trade, Plunder & Settlement
were also consulted.

Chapter 6.
The Politics of Piracy, Trade, and Religion

Geoffrey Parker’s books on the interdiction of trade with England (
Grand Strategy of Philip II,
most especially) and the
Lettres
of Cardinal de Granvelle give the crux of the Spanish perspective here. I consulted, too, Julian Corbett’s (ed.)
Naval Records Society Archives
, vols. I-XIII (London, 1898). F. C. Danvers’s
The Portuguese in India
(London, 1894) and H. Stevens and G. Birdwood’s (eds.)
The Dawn of Trade to the East Indies, 1599–1603
(London, 1886) provided background to the Portuguese position. J. W. Elliot’s
The Old World and the New, 1492–1650
(Cambridge, 1972) was perceptive. Nick Hazlewood’s
The Queen’s Slave Trader
(New York, 2005) and Harry Kelsey’s
Sir John Hawkins
(New Haven, 2003) are essential reading for anyone wanting to study John Hawkins.