The United Nations Security Council and War:The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945 (169 page)

¹³
Roberts, ‘What is Military Occupation?’, 302–5.

¹⁴
Ibid.

¹⁵
Benvenisti,
International Law of Occupation
, 166–7; Marcus, ‘Humanitarian Intervention without Borders’, 109–15.

¹⁶
Brian D. Tittemore, ‘Belligerents in Blue Helmets: Applying International Humanitarian Law to United Nations Peace Operations’,
Stanford Journal of International Law
33 (1997).

¹⁷
SC Res. 1674 of 28 Apr. 2006;’2005 World Summit Outcome’, GA Res. 60/1 of 16 Sep. 2005; International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty,
The Responsibility to Protect
(Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001); Gareth Evans and Mohamed Sahnoun, The Responsibility to Protect’,
Foreign Affairs
81 (Nov./Dec. 2002), 99.

¹⁸
See Kofi Annan, ‘Address at the Hague Appeal for Peace’, 15 May 1999; Alton Frye,
Humanitarian Intervention: Crafting a Workable Doctrine
(New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2000); Lori F. Damrosch et al.,
International Law: Cases and Materials
, 4th edn. (St. Paul, MN: West, 2001), 990–1005; Sean D. Murphy,
Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations in an Evolving World Order
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996); David J. Scheffer, ‘Toward A Modern Doctrine of Humanitarian Intervention’,
University of Toledo Law Review
23 (1992).

¹⁹
Secretary-General’s Bulletin, ‘Observance by United Nations Forces of International Humanitarian Law’, UN doc. ST/SGB/1999/13 of 6 Aug. 1999, s 1.1. See also Adam Roberts and Richard Guelf,
Documents on the Law of War
, 3rd edn. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 721–5. Although guidelines for strictly non-combat peacekeeping operations were long anticipated, they have never been promulgated by the UN Secretary-General. See also Tittemore, Belligerents in Blue Helmets’.

²⁰
See Glenn Bowens,
Legal Guide to Peace Operations
(Carlisle: US Army Peacekeeping Institute, 1998), 140–56; Tittemore, Belligerents in Blue Helmets’, 78–80; Dieter Fleck, Legal Issues of Multinational Military Units, Tasks and Mission, Stationing Law, Command and Control, International Law Across the Spectrum of Conflict, in Michael N. Schmitt (ed.),
International Law Across the Spectrum of Conflict
(Newport: Naval War College, 2000), 161.

²¹
See 1994 Conv. on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, Art. 2(2). See also Roberts and Guelff,
Documents on the Law of War
, 624–6; Tittemore, ‘Belligerents in Blue Helmets’, 92.

²²
UN Charter, Art. 103. (‘In the event of a conflict between the obligations of the Members of the United Nations under the present Charter and their obligations under any other international agreement, their obligations under the present Charter shall prevail.’)

²³
See
Appendices 1
and
3
for Security Council resolutions authorizing these deployments.

²⁴
SC Res. 940 of 31 July 1994.

²⁵
SC Res. 948 of 15 Oct. 1994, para. 5.

²⁶
SC Res. 975 of 30 Jan. 1995, para. 6.

²⁷
Ibid., para. 11.

²⁸
SC Res. 1007 of 31 July 1995, para. 12.

²⁹
SC Res. 1048 of 29 Feb. 1996, para. 5; SC Res. 1063 of 28 June 1996, para. 2.

³⁰
SC Res. 1542 of 30 Apr. 2004, para. 7.

³¹
SC Res. 1244 of 10 June 1999, para. 9.

³²
Ibid., para. 10.

³³
Ibid., para. 11.

³⁴
UN doc. S/2004/907 of 17 Nov. 2004; UN doc. S/2005/335 of 23 May 2005.

³⁵
SC Res. 1264 of 15 Sep. 1999.

³⁶
SC Res. 1272 of 25 Oct. 1999, para. 1.

³⁷
Ibid., para. 2.

³⁸
SC Res. 1410 of 17 May 2002, paras. 4 and 6.

³⁹
Detainee Ordinance of 21 October 1999 creating the Detainee Management Unit (establishing that Indonesian law would continue to apply within a procedural framework based on international humanitarian law principles, in particular Geneva Conv IV). See also B. M. Oswald, ‘INTERFET Detainee Management Unit in East Timor’ (2000) 3
Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law
, 347–61; Michael Kelly, ‘INTERFET Detainee Management Unit in East Timor’ (2000), available at
www.jsmp.minihub.org
Justice Len Roberts-Smith, ‘Reconstruction of the Rule of Law in Disrupted or Collapsed States’, Australian Red Cross Humanitarian Conference, Perth, 21–3 Aug. 2003, available at
www.defence.gov.au/jag/docs/200308_redcross.pdf

⁴⁰
UN doc. S/2001/1154 of 5 Dec. 2001.

⁴¹
SC Res. 1401 of 28 Mar. 2002.

⁴²
See UN doc. S/2001/1157 of 6 Dec. 2001; UN doc. S/2002/737 of 11 July 2002; UN doc. S/2003/333 of 18 Mar. 2003; UN doc. S/2003/754 of 23 July 2003; UN doc. A/58/616 of 3 Dec. 2003; UN doc. S/2004/230 of 19 Mar. 2004; UN doc. S/2004/634 of 12 Aug. 2004; UN doc. S/2004/925 of 26 Nov. 2004; UN doc. S/2005/183 of 18 Mar. 2005; and UN doc. S/2005/525 of 12 Aug. 2005.

⁴³
SC Res 1746 of 23 Mar. 2007.

⁴⁴
Ibid., para. 25 (emphasis added).

⁴⁵
SC Res. 1472 of 28 Mar. 2003.

⁴⁶
SC Res. 1483 of 22 May 2003; George W. Bush, ‘Statement on UN Vote Lifting Sanctions on Iraq’, 22 May 2003, available at
www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/05/iraq/20030522-11.html
Jack Straw, We Can Now Move Forward Together in Support of the Iraqi People’, Press Release, 22 May 2003, available at
www.fco.gov.uk

⁴⁷
See ‘Letter of 8 May 2003 from the Permanent Representatives of the United States of America and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to the President of the Security Council’, UN doc. S/2003/538 of 8 May 2003 (recognizing the specific authorities, responsibilities, and obligations under applicable international law of these states as occupying powers under unified command); see also ‘Comments made by UK Permanent Representative Sir Jeremy Greenstock after UK-US Presentation of Joint Draft of Security Council Resolution on Iraq’, United Nations, New York, 9 May 2003; Assistant Secretary of State for International Organizations, Kim Holmes, ‘New Resolution Deines “Vital Role” for U.N. in Iraq’, 23 May 2003, available at
www.usembassy.it/file2003_05/alia/A3052306.htm

⁴⁸
See SC Res. 1483 of 22 May 2003, para. 5.

⁴⁹
See Roger Hardy, ‘Struggle for Power in Iraq’,
BBC News
, 13 Apr. 2003; Jane Perlez, ‘US Team Arrives in Iraq to Establish Post-war Base’,
New York Times
, 9 Apr. 2003, B10; Richard W. Stevenson, ‘Bush Sees Aid Role of UN as Limited in Rebuilding Iraq’,
New York Times
, 9 Apr. 2003, A1; ‘U.S. Rejects UN Influence in Post-war Iraq Governance’,
Associated Press
, 7 Apr. 2003.

⁵⁰
Lord Goldsmith, Iraq: Authorisation for an Interim Administration’, Memorandum of 26 Mar. 2003,
New Statesman
(22 May 2003), available at
www.informationclearinghouse.info/article3505.htm

⁵¹
See generally Adam Roberts, ‘What is a Military Occupation?’; Benvenisti,
International Law of Occupation.

⁵²
In 1970, the General Assembly adopted without a vote the general principle that, ‘[t]he territory of a State shall not be the object of military occupation resulting from the use of force in contravention of the provisions of the Charter’: GA Res. 2625 of 24 Oct. 1970. If it were to be concluded that the military intervention into Iraq in March 2003 contravened the UN Charter, then the subsequent military occupation presumably would be illegal under that principle, although the obligations of the intervening powers under occupation law would persist. Subsequent Security Council action (such as SC Res. 1483) that has embraced the occupation might render the charge of earlier illegality moot for purposes of occupation law.

⁵³
See UN doc. S/2003/640 of 11 June 2003; Edmund L. Andrews, ‘Lifting of Iraq Sanctions Ends 13 Years of Isolation’,
New York Times
, 24 May 2003, A9; Colum Lynch, ‘Security Council Ends Iraq Sanctions’,
Washington Post
, 23 May 2003, A16.

⁵⁴
See SC Res. 1483 of 22 May 2003, Preamble.

⁵⁵
Ibid.

⁵⁶
Ibid., para. 5. Regarding the collective use of force under the Charter, see Damrosch et al.,
International Law
, 1005–43.

⁵⁷
SC Res. 1483 of 22 May 2003, para. 4.

⁵⁸
See for example Scheffer, ‘Beyond Occupation Law,’ 853–9; Thomas E. Ricks,
Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq
(New York: Penguin Press, 2006).

⁵⁹
SC Res. 1483 of 22 May 2003, para. 8.

⁶⁰
See ibid., paras. 12–14, 17.

⁶¹
Ibid., para. 16.

⁶²
See 1949 Geneva Conv. IV, Arts. 50, 53–4, 64–7. Cf. also SC Res. 1483 of 22 May 2003, paras. 9, 12–14, 20–2.

⁶³
See SC Res. 1483 of 22 May 2003, para. 9.

⁶⁴
See James Harding et al., ‘White House prepares to install regime of “free Iraqis”’,
Financial Times
, 4 Apr. 2003, 4; Douglas Jehl, ‘U.S. Reported to Push for Iraqi Government, With Pentagon Prevailing’,
New York Times
, 30 Apr. 2003, A13. L. Paul Bremer, Head of the Coalition Provisional Authority, quickly retreated from rapid political transformation and by July 2003 had opted for the creation of a hand-picked 25-member ‘Governing Council’, including some individuals who had lived in exile during Saddam Hussein’s rule, which would exercise broad executive powers. See Rajiv Chandrasekaran, ‘Former Exiles Given Majority on Iraqi Council; U.S. and Britain Revise Plans in Choosing 25-Member Governing Body’,
Washington Post
, 13 July 2003, A23. The Security Council then welcomed (but chose not to recognize formally) the establishment of the Governing Council of Iraq as an important step towards the formation by the people of Iraq of an internationally recognized, representative government that will exercise the sovereignty of Iraq’: see SC Res. 1500 of 14 Aug. 2003.

⁶⁵
SC Res. 1500 of 14 Aug. 2003, para. 2.

⁶⁶
SC Res. 1511 of 16 Oct. 2003, paras. 4 and 7.

⁶⁷
Ibid., para. 13.

⁶⁸
See Benvenisti,
International Law of Occupation
, 6, 107, 149–90, 211–12; Roberts and Guelff,
Documents on the Law of War
, 300; Imseis, ‘On the Fourth Geneva Convention’, 92–3; Hussein A. Hassouna, The Enforcement of the Fourth Geneva Convention in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including Jerusalem’,
Journal of International and Comparative Law
7 (2001), 464; Adam Roberts, ‘Prolonged Military Occupation: The Israeli-Occupied Territories since 1967’,
American Journal of International Law.
84 (1990), 98. But see Jordan J. Paust, Gerhard von Glahn, and Günter Waratsch, ‘Report of the ICJ Mission of Inquiry into the Israeli Military Court System in the Occupied West Bank and Gaza’,
Hastings International and Comparative Law Review
14 (1990), 5–9.

⁶⁹
See SC Res. 1483 of 22 May 2003, para. 5.

⁷⁰
See Christopher Adams and Mark Turner, Washington’s Stance over UN Raises Concern’,
Financial Times
, 26 Apr. 2003, 8. The British continued to pursue a UN mandate after the occupation of Iraq began. See for example James Blitz, ‘Britain Looks to Back UN Iraq Move’,
Financial Times
, 4 Aug. 2003, 1; Steven R. Weisman and Felicity Barringer, ‘US Abandons Idea of Bigger UN Role in Iraq Occupation’,
New York Times
, 14 Aug. 2003, A1.

⁷¹
For an excellent discussion about issues concerning whether military occupation can end at a particular moment along with ‘all the responsibilities of an occupying power as laid down in the laws of war’, with particular focus on the Iraqi experience, see Adam Roberts, ‘The End of Occupation: Iraq 2004’,
International and Comparative Law Quarterly
45 (2005), 27–48.

⁷²
SC Res. 1546 of 8 June 2004, para. 2.

⁷³
Ibid., paras. 10 and 12.

⁷⁴
Ibid., Annex. See also the preamble to SC Res. 1546.

⁷⁵
SC Res. 1637 of 11 Nov. 2005, paras. 1 and 2.

⁷⁶
See Roberts, ‘The End of Occupation’.

⁷⁷
‘Report of the Panel on Peace Operations’, UN doc. A/55/305-S/2000/809 of 21 Aug. 2000.

⁷⁸
For a discussion of atrocity crimes, see David J. Scheffer, ‘The Future of Atrocity Law’,
Suffolk Transitional Law Review
25, no. 3 (Summer 2002), 389–432; Scheffer, ‘Genocide and Atrocity Crimes’,
Genocide Studies and Prevention
1, no. 3 (Dec. 2006), 229–50; and Scheffer, ‘The Merits of Unifying Terms: “Atrocity Crimes” and “Atrocity Law”’,
Genocide Studies and Prevention
2, no. 1 (Apr. 2007), 91–6.

⁷⁹
‘2005 World Summit Outcome’, GA Res. 60/1 of 16 Sep. 2005, paras. 138–9.

⁸⁰
SC Res. 1674 of 28 Apr. 2006, para. 4.

⁸¹
GA Res. 60/180 of 30 Dec. 2005.

¹
SC Res. 57 of 18 Sep. 1948.

²
SC Res. 286 of 9 Sep. 1970.

³
For more on this side of the equation see, Edward C. Luck, ‘Tackling Terrorism’, in David Malone (ed.),
The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century
(Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004), 85–100, and Chantal de Jonge Oudraat, ‘The Role of the Security Council’, in Jane Boulden and Thomas Weiss (eds.),
Terrorism and the UN: Before and After September 11
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 151–72.