The United Nations Security Council and War:The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945 (163 page)

⁶
Though 712 ECOWAS troops from Benin, Gambia, Niger, and Togo intervened unsuccessfully in Guinea-Bissau in Feb. 1999 before being withdrawn following fighting four months later, the UN did not deploy any military personnel into Guinea-Bissau and the country did not experience the same level and duration of protracted fighting as the other three cases. I have therefore decided not to focus attention on Guinea-Bissau despite the UN’s involvement in the country’s post-conflict peace-building efforts.

⁷
For accounts of the Liberian civil war, Adekeye Adebajo,
Liberia’s Civil War: Nigeria, ECOMOG and Regional Security in West Africa
(Boulder, CO, and London: Lynne Rienner, 2002); Abiodun Alao, John Mackinlay and Funmi Olonisakin,
Peacekeepers, Politicians, and Warlords: The Liberian Peace Process
(Tokyo, New York, and Paris: United Nations University Press, 1999); Alhaji M.S. Bah and Festus Aboagye (eds.),
A Tortuous Road to Peace: The Dynamics of Regional, UN and International Humanitarian Interventions in Liberia
(Pretoria, South Africa: Institute for Security Studies, 2005); Stephen Ellis,
The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimensions of an African Civil War
(London: Hurst and Company, 1999); and Karl Magyar and Earl Conteh-Morgan (eds.),
Peacekeeping in Africa: ECOMOG in Liberia
(Hampshire, London, and New York: Macmillan and St. Martin’s Press, 1998).

⁸
This term also refers to soldiers who pretend to be rebels in order to loot and ambush.

⁹
For further details on ECOMOG’s military shortcomings see Herbert Howe, ‘Lessons of Liberia: ECOMOG and Regional Peacekeeping’,
International Security
21, no. 3 (Winter 1996/7), 145–76; Cyril Iweze, ‘Nigeria in Liberia: The Military Operations of ECOMOG’, in M. A. Vogt and A. E. Ekoko (eds.),
Nigeria in International Peacekeeping 1960–1992
(Lagos and Oxford: Malthouse Press Limited, 1993); and Robert Mortimer, ‘From ECOMOG to ECOMOG II: Intervention in Sierra Leone’, in John W. Harbeson and Donald Rothchild (eds.),
Africa in World Politics: The African State System in Flux
, 3rd edn. (Colorado and Oxford: Westview Press, 2000).

¹⁰
SC Res. 1270 of 20 Oct. 1999 established UNAMSIL in Sierra Leone. SC Res. 1509 of 19 Sep. 2003 established UNMIL in Liberia.

¹¹
See UN doc. S/2001/434 of 2 May 2001.

¹²
See Femi Aribisala, ‘The Political Economy of Structural Adjustment in Côte d’Ivoire’, in Adebayo Olukoshi, Omotayo Olaniyan and Femi Aribisala (eds.),
Structural Adjustment in West Africa
(Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, 1994); and Yves A. Fauré, ‘Côte d’Ivoire: Analysing the Crisis’, in Donal Cruise O’Brien et al. (eds.),
Contemporary West African States
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

¹³
For a background to the current crisis see A. Adebajo, ‘Pretoria, Paris and the Crisis in Côte d’Ivoire’,
Global Dialogue
(2006); A. Bathily, ‘La Crise Ivoirienne: Elements pour Situer ses Origines et ses Dimensions Sous-regionales’,
Democarcy and Development
3, no. 2 (2003), 93–9; A. R. Lamin, ‘The Conflict in Côte d’Ivoire: South Africa’s Diplomacy, and Prospects for Peace’, Occasional Paper no. 49, Institute for Global Dialogue, Johannesburg, Aug. 2005; and K. Whiteman, ‘Côte d’Ivoire: The Three Deaths of Houphouet-Boigny’, in
African Conflict, Peace and Governance Monitor
(Ibadan, Nigeria: Dokun Publishing House, 2005), 43–59.

¹⁴
For an overview see Shepard Forman and Andrew Greene, Collaborating with Regional Organizations’, in David Malone (ed.),
The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century
(Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2004), 295–309.

¹⁵
J. Jonah, ‘The United Nations’, in Adebajo and Rashid (eds.),
West Africa’s Security Challenges
, 325.

¹⁶
UN doc. S/22133 of 22 Jan. 1991.

¹⁷
Jonah, ‘The United Nations’, 323–6.

¹⁸
SC Res. 788 of 19 Nov. 1992.

¹⁹
See
An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-keeping
, UN doc. A/47/277-S/24111 of 17 June 1992.

²⁰
SC Res. 866 of 22 Sep. 1993.

²¹
See UN doc. S/1994/1167 of 14 Oct. 1994.

²²
See UN doc. S/2003/1175 of 15 Dec. 2003.

²³
Personal Interview with Trevor Gordon-Somers, New York, May 1997.

²⁴
Ibid.

²⁵
UN doc. S/1995/158 of 24 Feb. 1995, 12.

²⁶
UN doc. S/1995/781 of 13 Sep. 1995, 2.

²⁷
UN doc. S/1997/712 of 12 Sep. 1997, 4.

²⁸
The presence of ECOWAS and US troops was authorized by SC Res. 1497 of 1 Aug. 2003. UNMIL was established by SC Res. 1509 of 19 Sep. 2003.

²⁹
SC Res. 1509.

³⁰
UN doc. S/2004/1430 of 26 May 2004, 2.

³¹
This information on Liberia has drawn upon UN doc S/2005/764 of 7 Dec. 2005.

³²
UN doc. S/2006/159 of 14 Mar. 2006, 7.

³³
Jonah, The United Nations,’ 333.

³⁴
SC Res. 1132 of 8 Oct. 1997. See also
Appendix 4
.

³⁵
SC Res. 1181 of 13 July 1998.

³⁶
Personal Interview with an ECOMOG officer, Freetown, July 1999.

³⁷
Jonah, ‘The United Nations’, 331.

³⁸
UN doc. S/1999/836 of 30 July 1999, 2.

³⁹
UN doc. S/1999/1003 of 23 Sep. 1999, 6.

⁴⁰
SC Res. 1270 of 22 Oct. 1999.

⁴¹
Jonah, The United Nations’, 330.

⁴²
Ibid.

⁴³
Funmi Olonisakin and Comfort Ero, Africa and the Regionalization of Peace Operations’, in Michael Pugh and Waheguru Pal Singh Sidhu (eds.),
The United Nations and Regional Security: Europe and Beyond
(Boulder, CO,: Lynne Rienner, 2003), 246.

⁴⁴
Jonah, The United Nations’, 331.

⁴⁵
SC Res. 1289 of 7 Feb. 2000.

⁴⁶
Jonah, The United Nations’, 330.

⁴⁷
UN doc. S/2000/186 of 7 Mar. 2000, 3–4; and UN doc. S/2000/751 of 31 July 2000, 4.

⁴⁸
UN doc. S/2000/751 of 31 July 2000, 9.

⁴⁹
See Lansana Fofana, ‘A Nation Self-destructs’,
NewsAfrica
, 31 July 2000, 1 no. 5, 25; and Chris McGreal, ‘UN to sack its general in Sierra Leone’,
Guardian Weekly
, 29 June-5 July 2000, 2.

⁵⁰
John Hirsch, ‘Sierra Leone’, in Malone (ed.),
The UN Security Council
, 528.

⁵¹
SC Res. 1306 of 5 July 2000.

⁵²
SC Res. 1343 of 7 Mar. 2001.

⁵³
UN doc. S/2004/965 of 10 Dec. 2004.

⁵⁴
Personal discussions with senior UN officials, New York, Feb. 2006.

⁵⁵
UN doc. S/2005/596 of 20 Sep. 2005.

⁵⁶
UN doc. S/2006/269 of 28 Apr. 2006, 2–3.

⁵⁷
Whiteman, The Three Deaths of Houphouet-Boigny’, 53.

⁵⁸
See, for example, Adekeye Adebajo, ‘Nigeria: Africa’s New Gendarme?’,
Security Dialogue
31, no. 2 (June 2000), 185–99; Adebayo Adedeji, ‘ECOWAS: A Retrospective Journey’, in Adebajo and Rashid (eds.),
West Africa’s Security Challenges
, 21–49; and John Chipman,
French Power in Africa
(Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989).

⁵⁹
See Mohammed Chambas. The Security Council and ECOWAS: Facing the Challenges of Peace and Security’, New York, 11 Apr. 2003. Annex II of the New York-based International Peace Academy seminar report, ‘Operationalising the ECOWAS Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping and Security’, based on a meeting in Dakar, Senegal, 12–13 Aug. 2002. (Available at
www.ipacademy.org
).

⁶⁰
See UN doc. S/2003/374 of 26 Mar. 2003.

⁶¹
SC Res. 1479 of 13 May 2003.

⁶²
SC Res. 1528 of 27 Feb. 2004.

⁶³
Lamin, ‘The Conflict in Côte d’Ivoire’, 27.

⁶⁴
Whiteman, ‘The Three Deaths of Houphouet-Boigny’, 57.

⁶⁵
SC Res. 1572 of 15 Nov. 2004.

⁶⁶
SC Res. 1643 of 15 Dec. 2005.

⁶⁷
Security Council Report.
Monthly Forecast Jan. 2006, 22 Dec. 2005, 14; and Monthly Forecast Apr. 2006, 30 Mar. 2006, 8. (Available at
www.securitycouncilreport.org
).

⁶⁸
This information on Côte d’Ivoire has drawn upon UN doc. S/2005/398 of 17 June 2005; and on UN doc. S/2005/604 of 26 Sep. 2005.

⁶⁹
Security Council Report.
Monthly Forecast May 2006, 27 Apr. 2006, 9; and Monthly Forecast Mar. 2006, 24 Feb. 2006, 12.

⁷⁰
Francis Ikome, ‘Côte d’Ivoire Follow-up Dialogue’, Unpublished report of the Institute for Global Dialogue, South Africa of a seminar on 21 June 2006, 4.

⁷¹
UN doc. S/2006/222 of 11 Apr. 2006, 5.

⁷²
See Report of the Joint Review Mission on the United Nations post-conflict peacebuilding offices. Department of Political Affairs/United Nations Development Programme, 20 July 2001, 12.

⁷³
SC Res. 1620 of 31 Aug. 2005.

⁷⁴
UN doc. S/2001/129 of 29 Nov. 2001.

⁷⁵
UN doc. S/2001/434 of 2 May 2001, 15.

⁷⁶
ECOWAS-EU-UNOWA Framework of Action for Peace and Security (draft, n.d.).

⁷⁷
See, for example, David Cortright and George A. Lopez (eds.),
The Sanctions Decade: Assessing UN Strategies in the 1990s
(Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000); and Stephen Stedman, ‘Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes’,
International Security
22, no. 2 (Fall 1997), 5–53.

⁷⁸
See David Cortright and George A. Lopez, ‘Reforming Sanctions’, in Malone (ed.),
The UN Security Council
, 167–79.

⁷⁹
See A. Bolaji Akinyemi, ‘The Taylor Saga: A Clash of Civilisations’,
New African
no. 451 (May 2006), 20–23; and Ali A. Mazrui, ‘A True Citizen of the World’, (Interview),
AU Magazine
, June-Aug. 2005, 1 no. 4, 17.

⁸⁰
This view was confirmed by Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah, UN Special Representative for West Africa, during an interview in Dakar, Senegal, on 5 June 2006.

⁸¹
These missions are in Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia/Eritrea, Sudan, Western Sahara, DRC, and Burundi.

⁸²
See High-level Panel,
A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility – Report of the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change
, UN doc. A/59/565 of 2 Dec. 2004; and see
In Larger Freedom: Towards Security, Development and Human Rights for All – Report of the Secretary-General
, UN doc. A/59/2005 of 2 Mar. 2005. See also ‘A More Secure Continent: African Perspectives on the UN High-level Panel Report’, CCR Seminar Report, May 2005. (Available at
www.ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za
).

⁸³
See UN doc. S/2000/992 of 16 Oct. 2000; UN doc. S/2003/688 of 7 July 2003; and UN doc. S/2004/525 of 2 July 2004.

¹
UN Charter, Art. 24.

²
Ibid., Art. 43.

³
Ibid., Art. 42.

⁴
Ibid., Art. 47.

⁵
SC Res. 83 of 27 June 1950.

⁶
GA Res. 377 (V) of 3 Nov. 1950.

⁷
Stephen E. Ambrose,
Eisenhower The President
(London: Allen & Unwin, 1984), 229.

⁸
Peter V. Pry,
War Scare. Russia and America on the Nuclear Brink
(Westport, CN: Praeger, 1999),
part 1
.

⁹
Raymond L. Garthoff,
Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis
(Washington, DC: Brookings, 1987), 59–60.

¹⁰
Annual Register
(1987), 292–3, 299.

¹¹
Annual Register
(1999), 316–17, 323.

¹²
In 2003 it transpired that President Musharaf had told India that Pakistan could have considered a ‘non-conventional’ military response had Indian troops entered its territory. In Jan. 2002, India’s senior general had declared his troops prepared for the retaliatory use of nuclear weapons, and in Jan. 2003, the Indian Defence Minister observed, during the test-firing of missiles, that Pakistan would be destroyed if it started a nuclear war:
Annual Register
(2002), 315; (2003), 336.

¹³
Annual Register
(2001), 334, 337; (2002), 315–21, 380–93;
Keesing’s Record of World Events
, 44792–3.

¹⁴
James Mann,
About Face: A History of America’s Curious Relationship with China from Nixon to Clinton
(New York: Vintage Books, 2000), ch. 17.

¹⁵
Keesing’s Record of World Events
, 43412, 43460.

¹⁶
Ibid., 45900, 46118, 46410, 46521.

¹⁷
Ibid., 44101–2, 44898, 45088, 46063, 46204. For a 2005 joint Sino-Russian invasion exercise, see
Daily Telegraph
, 19 Aug. 2005, 16.

¹⁸
Keesing’s Record of World Events
, 44101–2.