The World Was Going Our Way (104 page)
Read The World Was Going Our Way Online
Authors: Christopher Andrew
Tags: #Biographies & Memoirs, #True Accounts, #Espionage, #History, #Europe, #Ireland, #Military, #Intelligence & Espionage, #Modern (16th-21st Centuries), #20th Century, #Russia, #World
84
. See above, p. 135.
. See above, p. 135.
85
. Johnson,
South Africa
, p. 199.
. Johnson,
South Africa
, p. 199.
86
. Mandela,
Long Walk to Freedom
, chs. 97-8. Mandela did not formally become President of the ANC, in succession to Oliver Tambo, until Tambo stood down in July 1991.
. Mandela,
Long Walk to Freedom
, chs. 97-8. Mandela did not formally become President of the ANC, in succession to Oliver Tambo, until Tambo stood down in July 1991.
87
. Sparks,
Tomorrow Is Another Country
; Waldmeir,
Anatomy of a Miracle
.
. Sparks,
Tomorrow Is Another Country
; Waldmeir,
Anatomy of a Miracle
.
88
. Mandela,
Long Walk to Freedom
, p. 113.
. Mandela,
Long Walk to Freedom
, p. 113.
Conclusion
1
. vol. 1, app. 3. Soviet academic experts were equally optimistic. Yuri Semenov wrote in 1980 that as a result of the help provided by the Soviet Union and other ‘socialist countries’ to former colonial states, ‘many of them have adopted a socialist orientation and have entered on the path of non-capitalist development. The existence of a world socialist system provides the nations which are retarded in their development with a realistic possibility of a transition to socialism, which by-passes the long and tormented route by which mankind as a whole has passed.’ Semenov, ‘The Theory of Socio-economic Foundations and World History’, p. 52.
. vol. 1, app. 3. Soviet academic experts were equally optimistic. Yuri Semenov wrote in 1980 that as a result of the help provided by the Soviet Union and other ‘socialist countries’ to former colonial states, ‘many of them have adopted a socialist orientation and have entered on the path of non-capitalist development. The existence of a world socialist system provides the nations which are retarded in their development with a realistic possibility of a transition to socialism, which by-passes the long and tormented route by which mankind as a whole has passed.’ Semenov, ‘The Theory of Socio-economic Foundations and World History’, p. 52.
2
. Gates,
From the Shadows
, p. 174.
. Gates,
From the Shadows
, p. 174.
3
. See above, p. 121.
. See above, p. 121.
4
. See above, pp. 132-3.
. See above, pp. 132-3.
5
. Boldin,
Ten Years that Shook the World
, p. 40. Boldin later became Gorbachev’s chief of staff, but took part in the unsuccessful coup against him in August 1991.
. Boldin,
Ten Years that Shook the World
, p. 40. Boldin later became Gorbachev’s chief of staff, but took part in the unsuccessful coup against him in August 1991.
6
. Gates,
From the Shadows
, pp. 186-7; Volkogonov,
Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire
, pp. 330-31. On the political jokes of the Brezhnev era, see ‘Our Great Leaders and Teachers’:
www.nctimes.net
.
. Gates,
From the Shadows
, pp. 186-7; Volkogonov,
Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire
, pp. 330-31. On the political jokes of the Brezhnev era, see ‘Our Great Leaders and Teachers’:
www.nctimes.net
.
7
. In May 1982 Andropov left the KGB for the Central Committee Secretariat to displace his main rival for the succession, Konstantin Chernenko, a long-time Brezhnev crony, apparatchik and sycophant, as effectively second Party secretary to Brezhnev. Proof is lacking for suggestions that Brezhnev favoured Chernenko as his successor.
. In May 1982 Andropov left the KGB for the Central Committee Secretariat to displace his main rival for the succession, Konstantin Chernenko, a long-time Brezhnev crony, apparatchik and sycophant, as effectively second Party secretary to Brezhnev. Proof is lacking for suggestions that Brezhnev favoured Chernenko as his successor.
8
. Volkogonov,
Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire
, pp. 329-30, 358-9; Dobbs,
Down with Big Brother
, p. 106; Dobrynin,
In Confidence
, p. 551.
. Volkogonov,
Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire
, pp. 329-30, 358-9; Dobbs,
Down with Big Brother
, p. 106; Dobrynin,
In Confidence
, p. 551.
9
. Campbell, ‘Soviet Policy in Southern Africa’, p. 228. From September 1983, though still working from his sickbed, Andropov, by then terminally ill, was no longer able to chair Politburo meetings; Volkogonov,
Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire
, p. 384.
. Campbell, ‘Soviet Policy in Southern Africa’, p. 228. From September 1983, though still working from his sickbed, Andropov, by then terminally ill, was no longer able to chair Politburo meetings; Volkogonov,
Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire
, p. 384.
10
. Rubinstein,
Moscow’s Third World Strategy
, p. 238.
. Rubinstein,
Moscow’s Third World Strategy
, p. 238.
11
. Volkogonov,
Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire
, pp. 385-96.
. Volkogonov,
Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire
, pp. 385-96.
12
. Leonov,
Likholet’e
, p. 141.
. Leonov,
Likholet’e
, p. 141.
13
. Garthoff, ‘The KGB Reports to Gorbachev’, pp. 226-7; Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield,
pp. 214-15;
. Garthoff, ‘The KGB Reports to Gorbachev’, pp. 226-7; Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield,
pp. 214-15;
14
. Volkogonov,
Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire
, p. 495.
. Volkogonov,
Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire
, p. 495.
15
. Kennedy-Pipe,
Russia and the World
, p. 196.
. Kennedy-Pipe,
Russia and the World
, p. 196.
16
. See above, p. 417.
. See above, p. 417.
17
. Ostermann (ed.), ‘Gorbachev and Afghanistan’, p. 146.
. Ostermann (ed.), ‘Gorbachev and Afghanistan’, p. 146.
18
. On the misbehaviour of the Czechoslovak minister see Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, pp. 274-5.
. On the misbehaviour of the Czechoslovak minister see Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, pp. 274-5.
19
. Kirpichenko,
Razvedka
, pp. 250-58.
. Kirpichenko,
Razvedka
, pp. 250-58.
20
. Beschloss and Talbott,
At the Highest Levels
, p. 56.
. Beschloss and Talbott,
At the Highest Levels
, p. 56.
21
. Ibid., pp. 57-8. Unlike Gorbachev, Leonov and some other senior KGB veterans were still welcome visitors to Cuba in the early twenty-first century; ‘Cuba’s Comandante Turned Coma-andante’,
Moscow News
, 31 Oct. 2004.
. Ibid., pp. 57-8. Unlike Gorbachev, Leonov and some other senior KGB veterans were still welcome visitors to Cuba in the early twenty-first century; ‘Cuba’s Comandante Turned Coma-andante’,
Moscow News
, 31 Oct. 2004.
22
. Kennedy-Pipe,
Russia and the World
, p. 196.
. Kennedy-Pipe,
Russia and the World
, p. 196.
23
. Kirpichenko,
Razvedka
, pp. 190-92.
. Kirpichenko,
Razvedka
, pp. 190-92.
24
. Ibid., pp. 201-3. Details of Mengistu’s chairs in Hartley,
The Zanzibar Chest
, p. 138.
. Ibid., pp. 201-3. Details of Mengistu’s chairs in Hartley,
The Zanzibar Chest
, p. 138.
25
. Orizio,
Talk of the Devil
, pp. 144ff; Hartley,
The Zanzibar Chest
, p. 138. See above, p. 457.
. Orizio,
Talk of the Devil
, pp. 144ff; Hartley,
The Zanzibar Chest
, p. 138. See above, p. 457.
26
. Article by Leonov in
Sovetskaia Rossiia
, 26 April 1991. Leonov wrote this article as head of KGB intelligence assessment and made clear that it summarized detailed warnings sent by his department to ‘the leadership of this country’. Andrew and Gordievsky (eds.),
Instructions from the Centre
, pp. 219-21.
. Article by Leonov in
Sovetskaia Rossiia
, 26 April 1991. Leonov wrote this article as head of KGB intelligence assessment and made clear that it summarized detailed warnings sent by his department to ‘the leadership of this country’. Andrew and Gordievsky (eds.),
Instructions from the Centre
, pp. 219-21.
27
. Andrew and Gordievsky (eds.),
Instructions from the Centre
, pp. 218, 221-2. Among those taken in by the conspiracy theories was Gorbachev’s chief of staff (formerly his assistant), Valeri Boldin, who took seriously Kryuchkov’s claims that the KGB ‘had intercepted certain information in the possession of Western intelligence agencies concerning plans for the collapse of the USSR and steps necessary to complete the destruction of our country as a great power’. Boldin,
Ten Years that Shook the World
, p. 263.
. Andrew and Gordievsky (eds.),
Instructions from the Centre
, pp. 218, 221-2. Among those taken in by the conspiracy theories was Gorbachev’s chief of staff (formerly his assistant), Valeri Boldin, who took seriously Kryuchkov’s claims that the KGB ‘had intercepted certain information in the possession of Western intelligence agencies concerning plans for the collapse of the USSR and steps necessary to complete the destruction of our country as a great power’. Boldin,
Ten Years that Shook the World
, p. 263.
28
. Remnick,
Lenin’s Tomb
, p. 448. See above, pp. 135-6.
. Remnick,
Lenin’s Tomb
, p. 448. See above, pp. 135-6.
29
. See above, p. 10.
. See above, p. 10.
30
. Jeffrey Sachs, quoted in Gary Duncan, ‘Economic Agenda’,
The Times
, 10 Jan. 2005.
. Jeffrey Sachs, quoted in Gary Duncan, ‘Economic Agenda’,
The Times
, 10 Jan. 2005.
31
. Clapham,
Africa and the International System
, pp. 153-4.
. Clapham,
Africa and the International System
, pp. 153-4.
32
. Ibid., pp. 155-6.
. Ibid., pp. 155-6.
33
. Szulc,
Fidel
, pp. 533-4.
. Szulc,
Fidel
, pp. 533-4.
34
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, pp. 496-7.
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, pp. 496-7.
35
. Andrew,
For the President’s Eyes Only
, pp. 425-6.
. Andrew,
For the President’s Eyes Only
, pp. 425-6.
36
. Mandela,
Long Walk to Freedom
, p. 379.
. Mandela,
Long Walk to Freedom
, p. 379.
37
. Cherkashin,
Spy Handler
, p. 146.
. Cherkashin,
Spy Handler
, p. 146.
38
. Interview with Leonov in
Pravda
, 21 March 2002.
. Interview with Leonov in
Pravda
, 21 March 2002.
39
. Primakov,
Russian Crossroads
, pp. 92, 111. Primakov claims that Gordievsky came ‘close to confessing’ before his escape from Russia but makes no mention of the fact that Gordievsky, who had not been told he was under suspicion, was invited for a strategy meeting in a KGB dacha, given a drugged Armenian brandy, then suddenly subjected to aggressive interrogation and repeatedly told, as his head reeled from the effect of the drugs, that he had just confessed. The use of the phrase ‘close to confessing’, however, amounts to an admission that, even in these circumstances, Gordievsky did not in fact confess. On Gordievsky’s interrogation and escape, see Andrew and Gordievsky,
KGB
, introduction, and Gordievsky,
Next Stop Execution
, chs. 1, 14.
. Primakov,
Russian Crossroads
, pp. 92, 111. Primakov claims that Gordievsky came ‘close to confessing’ before his escape from Russia but makes no mention of the fact that Gordievsky, who had not been told he was under suspicion, was invited for a strategy meeting in a KGB dacha, given a drugged Armenian brandy, then suddenly subjected to aggressive interrogation and repeatedly told, as his head reeled from the effect of the drugs, that he had just confessed. The use of the phrase ‘close to confessing’, however, amounts to an admission that, even in these circumstances, Gordievsky did not in fact confess. On Gordievsky’s interrogation and escape, see Andrew and Gordievsky,
KGB
, introduction, and Gordievsky,
Next Stop Execution
, chs. 1, 14.
40
. Interview with Kirpichenko,
Vremia Novostei
, 20 Dec. 2004.
. Interview with Kirpichenko,
Vremia Novostei
, 20 Dec. 2004.
41
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, pp. 330, 546-7.
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, pp. 330, 546-7.
42
. Kalugin,
Spymaster
, pp. 287-98.
. Kalugin,
Spymaster
, pp. 287-98.
43
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, ch. 5.
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, ch. 5.
44
. Ibid., chs. 19, 20.
. Ibid., chs. 19, 20.
45
. See above, ch. 12.
. See above, ch. 12.
46
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, pp. 559-60. Korchnoi lost the championship by a single point.
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, pp. 559-60. Korchnoi lost the championship by a single point.
47
. Ibid., pp. 248-9.
. Ibid., pp. 248-9.
48
. Ibid., ch. 15.
. Ibid., ch. 15.
49
. See above, ch. 21.
. See above, ch. 21.
50
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, ch. 30.
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, ch. 30.
51
. See above, pp. 270-72.
. See above, pp. 270-72.
52
. Andrew and Gordievsky,
KGB
, ch. 9.
. Andrew and Gordievsky,
KGB
, ch. 9.
53
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, p.561.
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, p.561.
54
. Andrew and Gordievsky (eds.),
Instructions from the Centre
, ch. 1.
. Andrew and Gordievsky (eds.),
Instructions from the Centre
, ch. 1.
55
. See above, pp. 38, 135-6.
. See above, pp. 38, 135-6.
56
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, pp. 215-20, 556-8. On similarities in the East German case, see Macrakis, ‘Does Effective Espionage Lead to Success in Science and Technology?’
. Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Sword and the Shield
, pp. 215-20, 556-8. On similarities in the East German case, see Macrakis, ‘Does Effective Espionage Lead to Success in Science and Technology?’
57
. Unlike Putin, Andropov had no background in foreign intelligence; he was a Party apparatchik and diplomat before becoming KGB Chairman in 1967.
. Unlike Putin, Andropov had no background in foreign intelligence; he was a Party apparatchik and diplomat before becoming KGB Chairman in 1967.
58
. A list of thirty-three influential former KGB and FSB officers in the Putin administration was published in
Novaia Gazeta
in June 2003.
. A list of thirty-three influential former KGB and FSB officers in the Putin administration was published in
Novaia Gazeta
in June 2003.
59
. Nick Holdsworth and Robin Gedye, ‘Putin brings back the Cold War spy system’,
Daily Telegraph
, 15 July 2004.
. Nick Holdsworth and Robin Gedye, ‘Putin brings back the Cold War spy system’,
Daily Telegraph
, 15 July 2004.
60
. Interview with Kirpichenko,
Vremia Novostei
, 20 Dec. 2004.
. Interview with Kirpichenko,
Vremia Novostei
, 20 Dec. 2004.
61
. See above, p. 471.
. See above, p. 471.
62
. Elkner, ‘Spiritual Security in Putin’s Russia’.
. Elkner, ‘Spiritual Security in Putin’s Russia’.
63
. ‘Senior Whitehall and security sources’, cited by Jason Bennetto, ‘Carry On Spying: Russian Agents Flood UK in Revival of Intelligence Cold War’,
Independent
, 26 Oct. 2004.
. ‘Senior Whitehall and security sources’, cited by Jason Bennetto, ‘Carry On Spying: Russian Agents Flood UK in Revival of Intelligence Cold War’,
Independent
, 26 Oct. 2004.
64
. US Department of State,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2003: Russia
; Anna Badkhen, ‘Democracy on the Brink: Spy Mania’,
San Francisco Chronicle
, 7 March 2004; Kathy Lally, “‘Spy Mania” Strikes Russia’,
Baltimore Sun
, 4 Jan. 2004.
. US Department of State,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2003: Russia
; Anna Badkhen, ‘Democracy on the Brink: Spy Mania’,
San Francisco Chronicle
, 7 March 2004; Kathy Lally, “‘Spy Mania” Strikes Russia’,
Baltimore Sun
, 4 Jan. 2004.
65
. ‘Senior Whitehall and security sources’, cited by Jason Bennetto, ‘Carry On Spying: Russian Agents Flood UK in Revival of Intelligence Cold War’,
Independent
, 26 Oct. 2004. Recent reports of the all-party Intelligence and Security Committee refer more discreetly to concern at the level of ‘significant Russian activity in the UK’ and the problem of allocating sufficient resources to deal with it; Intelligence and Security Committee,
Annual Report 2003-2004
, pp. 29-30. According to Primakov, though post-Soviet Russian intelligence ‘has never hesitated in respect to [S&T] espionage’, political intelligence has remained its ‘top priority’; Primakov,
Russian Crossroads
, pp. 97-102.
. ‘Senior Whitehall and security sources’, cited by Jason Bennetto, ‘Carry On Spying: Russian Agents Flood UK in Revival of Intelligence Cold War’,
Independent
, 26 Oct. 2004. Recent reports of the all-party Intelligence and Security Committee refer more discreetly to concern at the level of ‘significant Russian activity in the UK’ and the problem of allocating sufficient resources to deal with it; Intelligence and Security Committee,
Annual Report 2003-2004
, pp. 29-30. According to Primakov, though post-Soviet Russian intelligence ‘has never hesitated in respect to [S&T] espionage’, political intelligence has remained its ‘top priority’; Primakov,
Russian Crossroads
, pp. 97-102.
66
. See above, pp. 246-50.
. See above, pp. 246-50.
67
. Interview with Lebedev,
Rossiiskaia Gazeta
, 20 Dec. 2002.
. Interview with Lebedev,
Rossiiskaia Gazeta
, 20 Dec. 2002.
68
. RIA Novosti report, 20 May 2004. A year earlier the FSB had hosted a meeting of intelligence agencies from forty-three states to discuss terrorist finance.
. RIA Novosti report, 20 May 2004. A year earlier the FSB had hosted a meeting of intelligence agencies from forty-three states to discuss terrorist finance.
69
. Samolis (ed.),
Veterany vneshnei razvedki Rossii
, pp. 3-4.
. Samolis (ed.),
Veterany vneshnei razvedki Rossii
, pp. 3-4.
70
. Primakov et al.,
Ocherki istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki
, vol. 3, conclusion.
. Primakov et al.,
Ocherki istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki
, vol. 3, conclusion.
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