Women After All: Sex, Evolution, and the End of Male Supremacy (46 page)

141
Hunter-gatherers have less assymmetry of power:
Karen L. Endicott, “Gender Relations in Hunter-Gatherer Societies,” in
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers
, ed. Richard B. Lee and Richard Daly (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 411.

142
Diets average about half animal flesh:
Marlowe,
The Hadza,
chapter 10, and “Hunting and Gathering: The Human Sexual Division of Foraging Labor.”

142
Women involved in hunting:
Rebecca Bliege Bird and Douglas W. Bird, “Why Women Hunt: Risk and Contemporary Foraging in a Western Desert Aboriginal Community,”
Current Anthropology
49, no. 4 (2008): 655–93; Andrew J. Noss and Barry S. Hewlett, “The Contexts of Female Hunting in Central Africa,”
American Anthropologist
103 (2001): 1024–40; Agnes Estioko-Griffin, “Women as Hunters: The Case of an Eastern Cagayan Agta Group,” in
The Agta of Northeastern Luzon: Recent Studies
, ed. P. Bion Griffin and Agnes Estioko-Griffin (Cebu City, Philippines: San Carlos, 1985), 18–32. M. J. Goodman, P. B. Griffin, A. A. Estiokogriffin, and J. S. Grove. “The Compatibility of Hunting and Mothering among the Agta Hunter-Gatherers of the Philippines,”
Sex Roles
12, no. 11-1 (1985): 1199–1209.

142
“What’s a Mother to Do?”:
Steven L. Kuhn and Mary C. Stiner, “What’s a Mother to Do? The Division of Labor Among Neandertals and Modern Humans in Eurasia,”
Current Anthropology
47, no. 6 (2006): 953–81.

143
Neanderthals ground, cooked, and ate barley:
Amanda G. Henry, Alison S. Brooks, and Dolores R. Piperno, “Microfossils in Calculus Demonstrate Consumption of Plants and Cooked Foods in
Neanderthal Diets (Shanidar III, Iraq; Spy I and II, Belgium),”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
108, no. 2 (2011): 486–91.

143
growing evidence in Africa:
Curtis W. Marean and thirteen other authors, “Early Human Use of Marine Resources and Pigment in South Africa During the Middle Pleistocene,”
Nature
449, no. 7164 (2007): 905–08.

143
the most caring fathers on record:
Barry S. Hewlett,
Intimate Fathers: The Nature and Context of Aka Pygmy Paternal Infant Care
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991).

Chapter 6: Cultivating Dominance

145
warfare emerged with much greater intensity:
Patricia M. Lambert, “The Archaeology of War: A North American Perspective,”
Journal of Archaeological Research
10, no. 3 (2002): 207–41.

146
A very similar process in Europe and the Near East:
R. Brian Ferguson, “The Prehistory of War and Peace in Europe and the Near East,” in
War, Peace and Human Nature: The Convergence of Evolutionary and Cultural Views
, ed. Douglas P. Fry (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 191–240.

146
One of the earliest shifts to agriculture:
Simone Riehl, Mohsen Zeidi, and Nicholas J. Conard, “Emergence of Agriculture in the Foothills of the Zagros Mountains of Iran,”
Science
341, no. 6141 (2013): 65–67.

147
“Second Earth”:
Marvin Harris,
Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology
, 7th ed. (New York: Longman, 1997).

148
worldwide intensification of hunting and gathering:
Melinda A. Zeder, “The Broad Spectrum Revolution at 40: Resource Diversity, Intensification, and an Alternative to Optimal Foraging Explanations,”
Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
31, no. 3 (2012): 241–64.

148
Northwest Coast Indians:
M. Susan Walter, “Polygyny, Rank, and Resources in Northwest Coast Foraging Societies,”
Ethnology
45, no. 1 (2006): 41–57. See also D. W. Sellen and D. J. Hruschka. “Extracted-Food Resource-Defense Polygyny in Native Western North American Societies at Contact,”
Current Anthropology
45, no. 5 (2004): 707–14.

149
A spectacular site:
Oliver Dietrich, Manfred Heun, Jens Notroff, Klaus Schmidt, and Martin Zarnkow, “The Role of Cult and Feasting in the Emergence of Neolithic Communities: New Evidence from
Göbekli Tepe, South-Eastern Turkey,”
Antiquity
86, no. 333 (2012): 674–95. For a popular account with photos, see Charles C. Mann, “The Birth of Religion,”
National Geographic Magazine,
June 2011.

149
The shift to agriculture worsened health:
A. Mummert, E. Esche, J. Robinson, and G. J. Armelagos, “Stature and Robusticity During the Agricultural Transition: Evidence from the Bioarchaeological Record,”
Economics and Human Biology
9, no. 3 (2011): 284–301.

150
“Health Versus Fitness”:
Patricia M. Lambert, “Health Versus Fitness,”
Current Anthropology
50, no. 5 (2009): 603–08.

150
Skeletons of 200 Natufians:
Vered Eshed, Avi Gopher, Ron Pinhasi, and Israel Hershkovitz, “Paleopathology and the Origin of Agriculture in the Levant,”
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
143, no. 1 (2010): 121–33.

151
Tchambuli women unadorned while men fussed with their hair:
Margaret Mead,
Male and Female: A Study of the Sexes in a Changing World
(New York: Dell, 1968).

151
Mosuo women kept husbands at a distance:
Cai Hua,
A Society Without Fathers or Husbands: The Na of China
(Brooklyn, New York: Zone Books, 2001), translated by Asti Hustvedt from the 1997 French edition,
Une société sans père ni mari: Les Na de Chine
(Presses Universitaires de France).

152
Minangkabau women had more influence:
Michael Peletz, “The Exchange of Men in Nineteenth-Century Negeri Sembilan (Malaya),”
American Ethnologist
14, no. 3 (1987): 449–69; and Jennifer Krier, “The Marital Project: Beyond the Exchange of Men in Minangkabau Marriage,”
American Ethnologist
27, no. 4 (2000): 877–97.

152
a matrilineal kingdom:
R. S. Rattray,
Ashanti
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1923); and Meyer Fortes, “Kinship and Marriage Among the Ashanti,” in
African Systems of Kinship and Marriage
, ed. A. R. Radcliffe-Brown and Daryll Forde (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1950), 252–85.

152
In matrilineal societies:
John Hartung, “Matrilineal Inheritance: New Theory and Analysis,”
Behavioral and Brain Sciences
8, no. 4 (1985): 661–70; see also analyses of the function and evolution of these systems by Laura Fortunato, “The Evolution of Matrilineal Kinship Organization,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences
279, no. 1749 (2012): 4939–45, and by Constance Holden, Rebecca Sear, and Ruth Mace, “Matriliny as Daughter-Biased Investment,”
Evolution and Human Behavior
24, no. 2 (2003): 99–112.

152
“deeply suffused with ambivalence”:
Michael G. Peletz,
Reason and Passion: Representations of Gender in a Malay Society
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 311.

152
“Through a complex chain of symbolic associations”:
Ibid., 313.

153
“Like the ash on a tree trunk”:
Ibid., 335.

153
“the matrilineal puzzle”:
Ibid., 337.

153
“Women predominated in many rituals”:
Michael G. Peletz, “Gender Pluralism: Muslim Southeast Asia since Early Modern Times.”
Social Research
78, no. 2 (2011): 659–86, p. 662.

154
Na ethnography:
Hua,
A Society Without Fathers or Husbands.

154
“an extreme case”:
Stevan Harrell, “Review of
A Society Without Fathers or Husbands: The Na of China,
”
American Anthropologist
104, no. 3 (2002): 983.

154
others have noted:
Eileen Walsh, “Review of
A Society Without Fathers or Husbands: The Na of China
,”
American Ethnologist
29, no. 4 (2002): 1043–45; Tami Blumenfield, “The Na of Southwest China: Debunking the Myths,” 2002, unpublished manuscript, cited by permission; Siobhán Mattison, Brooke Scelza, and Tami Blumenfield, “Paternal Investment and the Positive Effects of Fathers among the Matrilineal Mosuo of Southwest China,”
American Anthropologist
116, no. 3 (2014): 591–610.

154
“
Relations between men and women
”
: Polly Wiessner, "Alienating the Inalienable: Marriage and Money in a Big Man Society," in
The Scope of Anthropology
: Maurice Godelier's Work in Context, ed. Laurent Dousset and Serge Tcherkezoff (New York: Berghahn Books, 2012), 67–85.

155
“capital comes into the world”:
The German original reads, “Wenn das Geld, nach Augier, ‘mit natürlichen Blutflecken auf einer Backe zur Welt kommt,’ so das Kapital von Kopf bis Zeh, aus allen Poren, blut- und schmutz-triefend.” Karl Marx,
Das Kapital: Kritik der Politischen Oekonomie
(Hamburg: O. Meissner, 1883), 787. Accessed via Google Books on Sept. 13, 2014, http://books.google.com/books?id=xdYDAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s.

155
What we call civilization:
The characterization that follows is largely drawn from Bruce G. Trigger,
Understanding Civilizations: A Comparative Study
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003). Other works are cited below as needed to reference more specific points.

157
Women were subjugated in all early civilizations:
Ibid., 142 and chapter 9.

157
“repetitive, interruptible, non-dangerous”:
Judith K. Brown, “A Note on the Division of Labor by Sex,”
American Anthropologist
72, no. 5 (1970): 1077.

158
A systematic study of 185 societies:
George Peter Murdock and Caterina Provost, “Factors in the Division of Labor by Sex: A Cross-Cultural Analysis,”
Ethnology
12, no. 2 (1973): 203–25.

159
A distinction between
gemeinschaft
and
gesellschaft: Ferdinand Tönnies,
Community and Society
, trans. C. P. Loomis (New York: Harper & Row, 1957).

160
bridewealth to present:
For overviews, see Jane Fishburne Collier,
Marriage and Inequality in Classless Societies
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), and Jack Goody and Stanley J. Tambiah’s
Bridewealth and Dowry,
Cambridge Papers in Social Anthropology (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1973). “Bride price” is a misnomer for bridewealth, since it is not a purchase.

160
Yanomami men who had killed another man:
Napoleon A. Chagnon, “Life Histories, Blood Revenge, and Warfare in a Tribal Population,”
Science
239 (1988): 985–92.

160
“When a victim is beheaded”:
Renato Rosaldo,
Ilongot Headhunting 1883–1974: A Study in Society and History
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1980), 140–41.

160
Homicide has been part of our lives:
For further references on violence in the fossil record, see Melvin Konner, “Human Nature, Ethnic Violence, and War,” in
The Psychology of Resolving Global Conflicts: From War to Peace,
vol. 1, ed. Mari Fitzduff and Chris E. Stout (Westport, CT.: Praeger Security International, 2006). See also Lawrence H. Keeley,
War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Steven LeBlanc and Katherine E. Register,
Constant Battles: The Myth of the Peaceful, Noble Savage
(New York: St. Martin’s, 2003); and Steven Pinker,
The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined
(New York: Viking, 2011). For an alternative view, see Douglas P. Fry, ed.,
War, Peace, and Human Nature: The Convergence of Evolutionary and Cultural Views
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

161
Study by Fry and Söderberg:
D. P. Fry and P. Soderberg, “Lethal Aggression in Mobile Forager Bands and Implications for the Origins of War,”
Science
341, no. 6143 (2013): 270–73.

162
“interpretive pacifications”:
Keeley,
War Before Civilization,
20.

162
History as ongoing, expansionist tribal warfare:
See Pinker,
Better Angels,
and Andrew Bard Schmookler,
The Parable of the Tribes: The Problem of Power in Social Evolution
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).

162
“a sour ferment”:
Arnold Toynbee and Edward DeLos Myers,
A Study of History,
vol. 1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1948), 9.

162
“Sing, O Goddess, the ruinous wrath of Achilles”: The Iliad of Homer
, trans. Ennis Rees (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).

163
“the poem of force”:
Simone Weil,
The Iliad; or, the Poem of Force: A Critical Edition
(New York: Peter Lang, 2006).

163
laid low by his vengeful wife:
Aeschylus, “Agamemnon,” in
Aeschylus I
, ed. David Greene and Richmond Lattimore (Chicago: University of Chicago/Modern Library, 1942), 39–101.

163
Sacrifice of Iphigeneia:
Euripides,
Iphigeneia at Aulis
, trans. W. S. Merwin and George E. Dimock Jr. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978).

164
“defiles”:
Genesis 34:2. This and subsequent quotes are from the King James version.