A Disability History of the United States (32 page)

20.
Naomi Rogers, “Race and the Politics of Polio: Warm Springs, Tuskegee, and the March of Dimes,”
American Journal of Public Health
97, no. 5 (May 2007): 787, 791; Stephen E. Mawdsley, “‘Dancing on Eggs’: Charles H. Bynum, Racial Politics, and the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, 1938–1954,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine
84, no. 2 (Summer 2010): 227.

21.
Rogers, “Race and the Politics of Polio,” 791, 793; Bruce Watson,
Freedom Summer: The Savage Season That Made Mississippi Burn and Made America a Democracy
(New York: Viking, 2010), 246; Fannie Lou Hamer’s Testimony before the Credentials Committee, Democratic National Convention, Atlantic City, NJ, August 22, 1964. More research needs to be done on race and the vaccination process. For more on race, civil rights activism, and the March of Dimes, see: Mawdsley, “‘Dancing on Eggs.’”

22.
Doris Zames Fleischer and Frieda Zames,
The Disability Rights Movement: From Charity to Confrontation
(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), 33.

23.
Allison C. Carey,
On the Margins of Citizenship: Intellectual Disability and Civil Rights in Twentieth-Century America
(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009), 107; Kathleen Jones, “Education for Children with Mental Retardation: Parent Activism, Public Policy, and Family Ideology in the 1950s,” in
Mental Retardation in America
, ed. Steven Noll and James W. Trent (New York: New York University Press, 2004), 327.

24.
Jones, “Education for Children with Mental Retardation,” 325.

25.
For example, see:
Where’s Molly
(San Francisco: SFO Productions, 2007); Trent,
Inventing the Feeble Mind
, chap. 7; Carey,
On the Margins,
chap. 6; Harold Pollack, “Learning to Walk Slow: America’s Partial Policy Success in the Arena of Intellectual Disability,”
Journal of Policy History
19, no. 1 (2007): 95–112; Jones, “Education for Children with Mental Retardation”; Katherine Castles, “‘Nice, Average Americans’: Postwar Parents’ Groups and the Defense of the Normal Family,” in
Mental Retardation in America
, ed. Steven Noll and James W. Trent (New York: New York University Press, 2004), 351–70; Barbara Bair, “The Parents Council for Retarded Children and Social Change in Rhode Island, 1951–1970,”
Rhode Island History
40, no. 4 (1981): 144–59; Melanie Panitch,
Disability, Mothers, and Organization: Accidental Activists
(New York: Routledge, 2008).

26.
Carey,
On the Margins,
112, 115–16; Gerald O’Brien, “Rosemary Kennedy: The Importance of a Historical Footnote,”
Journal of Family History
29, no. 3 (July 2004): 225–36; David Braddock, “Honoring Eunice Kennedy Shriver’s Legacy in Intellectual Disability,”
Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
48, no. 1 (February 2010): 63–72; Edward Shorter,
The Kennedy Family and the Story of Mental Retardation
(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000).

27.
Carey,
On the Margins,
190; written remembrances of Jane Birk, Minnesota ARC Papers, Minnesota Historical Society.

28.
Steven J. Taylor,
Acts of Conscience: World War II, Mental Institutions, and Religious Objectors
(Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2009), 2, chap. 7; Frank Leon Wright, ed.,
Out of Sight, Out of Mind
(Philadelphia: National Mental Health Foundation, 1947). Another such example is Albert Deutsch’s
The Shame of the States
(New York: Arno Press, 1973).

29.
Burton Blatt and Fred Kaplan,
Christmas in Purgatory
(New York: Allyn and Bacon, 1966).

30.
Steven J. Taylor, “
Christmas in Purgatory,
” in
Encyclopedia of American Disability History
, vol. 1, ed. Susan Burch (New York: Facts on File, 2009), 175. See also: David Mechanic and Gerald N. Grob, “Rhetoric, Realities, and the Plight of the Mentally Ill in America,” in
History and Health Policy in the United States: Putting the Past Back
, ed. Rosemary A. Stevens, Charles E. Rosenberg, and Lawton R. Burns (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2006): 229–49; Darby Penney and Peter Stastny,
The Lives They Left Behind: Suitcases from a State Hospital Attic
(New York: Bellevue Literary Press, 2008).

31.
Bay Crockett, Pueblo, CO, to Franklin D. Roosevelt, October 23, 1942, FDR Papers as President, Official File, 4920 gasoline rationing, 1942, Hyde Park, New York, FDR Presidential Library and Museum.

32.
Victor L. Lee, Los Altos, California, to Franklin D. Roosevelt, January 29, 1942, FDR Papers as President, Official File, 4740 tire industry, FDR Presidential Library and Museum.

33.
Julia O’Brien, Seneca Falls, New York, to Franklin D. Roosevelt, August 9, 1942, FDR Papers as President, Official File, 4740 tire industry, July–Dec 1942, FDR Presidential Library and Museum.

34.
Ibid.; Letter from Julia O’Brien to Mrs. Beady, White House Executive Office, undated, FDR Papers as President, Official File, 4740 tire industry, July–Dec 1942, FDR Presidential Library and Museum.

35.
Harlan Hahn, “Public Support for Rehabilitation Programs: The Analysis of US Disability Policy,”
Disability, Handicap and Society
1, no. 2 (1986): 127; R. K. McNickle,
Rehabilitation of Disabled Persons: Editorial Research Reports,
vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1950), retrieved from CQ Researcher,
http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher
.

36.
William B. Towns, “The Physically Handicapped on the Industrial Warfront,”
Crippled Child
, June 1942.

37.
Ibid.

38.
Kathi Wolf, “Teaching of Disability History Is Eminently Right—and FAIR,”
Independence Today,
August 2011
,
http://www.itodaynews.com
, accessed November 11, 2011.

39.
Andrew Edmund Kersten,
Labor’s Home Front: The American Federation of Labor during World War II
(Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 166, 167.

40.
Legislation passed after World War I includes the 1916 National Defense Act, the 1917 Smith-Hughes Act, which created the Federal Board of Vocational Education, and the 1918 Smith-Sears Veterans Rehabilitation Act. For more on this and debates surrounding emerging programs, see: Ruth O’Brien,
Crippled Justice: The History of Modern Disability Policy in the Workplace
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), chap. 2. For more on the emerging rehabilitation profession, see: Martha Lentz Walker,
Beyond Bureacracy: Mary Elizabeth Switzer and Rehabilitation
(Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1985); Edward D. Berkowitz, “The Federal Government and the Emergence of Rehabilitation Medicine,”
Historian
43 (1981): 530–45.

41.
O’Brien,
Crippled Justice,
76–77.

42.
Ibid., 77–78; Audra Jennings, “‘The Greatest Numbers . . . Will Be Wage Earners’: Organized Labor and Disability Activism, 1945–1953,”
Labor: Studies in Working Class History of the Americas
4, no. 4 (2007): 37–52.

43.
Jennings, “‘The Great Numbers,’” 66–67; Audra Jennings, “Picnics, Parties, and Rights: US Disability Activism, 1940–1960,” American Historical Association conference presentation, January 2012 (used with author’s permission). For more on disability as a labor issue, see: Sarah F. Rose, “‘Crippled’ Hands: Disability in Labor and Working-Class History,”
Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas
2, no. 1 (2005): 27–54.

44.
Jennings, “‘The Great Numbers,” 56–57. For more on this, see: O’Brien,
Crippled Justice
; Buchanan,
Illusions of Equality;
Richard Scotch, “American Disability Policy in the Twentieth Century,” in
The New Disability History: American Perspectives
, ed. Paul K. Longmore and Lauri Umansky (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 375–92.

45.
Thomas L. Stokes, “‘Bravest of the Brave’ Fight Prejudice Caused by Extent of their Sacrifice”
State Journal
(WI), August 17, 1946.

46.
Jennings, “‘The Great Numbers,” 72, 81.

47.
David A. Gerber, “In Search Of Al Schmid: War Hero, Blinded Veteran, Everyman,”
Journal of American Studies
1995 29, no. 1 (1995): 12, 19; David Gerber, “Anger and Affability: The Rise and Representation of a Repertory of Self-Presentation Skills in a World War II Disabled Veteran,”
Journal of Social History
27, no. 1 (1993): 5–27; David Gerber, “Blind and Enlightened: The Contested Origins of the Egalitarian Politics of the Blinded Veterans Association” in
The New Disability History
:
American Perspectives
, ed. Paul K. Longmore and Lauri Umansky (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 313–74; David Gerber, “Memory of Enlightenment: Accounting for the Egalitarian Politics of the Blinded Veterans Association,”
Disability Studies Quarterly
18 (Fall 1998): 257–63.

48.
Jefferson, “Enabled Courage,” 1122–24. For more on African American disabled veterans, see: Ellen Dwyer, “Psychiatry and Race during World War II,”
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
61(2006): 117–43.

49.
See, for example, Felicia Kornbluh, “Disability, Antiprofessionalism, and Civil Rights: The National Federation of the Blind and the ‘Right to Organize’ in the 1950s,”
Journal of American History
(March 2011): 1023–47; Jacobus tenBroek, “The Right to Live in the World: The Disabled in the World of Torts,”
California Law Review
54, no. 2 (1966); Albert A. Herzog Jr., “From Service to Rights: The Movement for Disability Rights in the American Methodist Tradition,”
Methodist History
38, no. 1 (1999): 27–39; Edward Abrahams, “Randolph Bourne on Feminism and Feminists,”
Historian
43, no. 3 (1981): 365–77; Paul K. Longmore and Paul Steven Miller, “‘A Philosophy of Handicap’: The Origins Of Randolph Bourne’s Radicalism,”
Radical History Review
94 (2006): 59–83; Amy L. Fairchild, “Leprosy, Domesticity, and Patient Protest: The Social Context of a Patients’ Rights Movement in Mid-Century America,”
Journal of Social History
(2006): 1011–42.

1.
“Disabled Miners Threaten Stronger Tactics,”
Beckley (WV) Post-Herald,
September 6, 1971, 6.

2.
“President of Disabled Miners Claims Strike Imminent,”
Uniontown (PA) Morning Herald
, September 30, 1971; Robert Payne obituary,
Beckley (WV) Register-Herald
, October 29, 2009; William Graebner,
Coal-Mining Safety in the Progressive Period: The Political Economy of Reform
(Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1976), 91.

3.
Barbara Ellen Smith,
Digging Our Graves: Coal Miners and the Struggle over Black Lung Disease
(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 14; Graebner,
Coal-Mining Safety,
56. For more on coal mining and the strikes of the 1970s, see: Smith,
Digging Our Graves
; Paul F. Clark,
The Miners’ Fight for Democracy: Arnold Miller and the Reform of the United Mine Workers
(Ithaca, NY: New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University, 1981); Robert L. Lewis,
Black Coal Miners in America: Race, Class, and Community Conflict, 1870–1980
(Louisville: University Press of Kentucky, 1987); Richard A. Brisbin,
A Strike Like No Other Strike: Law and Resistance during the Pittston Coal Strike of 1989–1990
(Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002); Robyn Muncy, “Coal-Fired Reform: Social Citizenship, Dissident Miners, and the Great Society,”
Journal of American History
96, no. 1 (2009): 72–98.

4.
Brisbin,
A Strike Like No Other,
82; Graebner,
Coal-Mining Safety,
92.

5.
“President of Disabled Miners Claims Strike Imminent,”
Uniontown (PA) Morning Herald
; “Disabled Miners Threaten Stronger Tactics,”
Beckley (WV) Post-Herald
.

6.
Lewis,
Black Coal Miners,
184; Graebner,
Coal-Mining Safety,
92; Smith lived in Rhodell, also near Beckley, West Virginia. He credited Arnold Miller with securing him a wheelchair during this period.

7.
“Clara Clow,”
Frederick (MD) News
, August 15, 1990.

8.
Ibid.

9.
Ibid.

10.
Scholarship on the disability rights movement includes, but is not limited to: Paul K. Longmore, “The Disability Rights Movement,” in
Why I Burned My Book and Other Essays on Disability
(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003), 101–15; Sharon Barnartt and Richard Scotch,
Disability Protests: Contentious Politics, 1970–1999
(Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 2001); Doris Zames Fleischer and Frieda Zames,
The Disability Rights Movement: From Charity to Confrontation
(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001); Jacqueline Vaughn Switzer,
Disabled Rights: American Disability Policy and the Fight for Equality
(Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003); Joseph P. Shapiro,
No Pity: People with Disabilities Forging a New Civil Rights Movement
(New York: Random House, 1993); Richard K. Scotch,
From Good Will to Civil Rights: Transforming Federal Disability Policy
, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001).

11.
Shapiro,
No Pity,
chap. 2; Barnartt and Scotch,
Disability Protests,
42–44. Roberts noted that some of the most treasured care attendants were conscientious objectors, assigned to what a military official thought would be a miserable and punishing job. Like the conscientious objectors who brought public attention to the abuses at institutions for people with developmental disabilities, these young men quickly became valuable allies. Roberts said, “These were the kind of people we wanted to work with. We were very lucky.” Fleischer and Zames,
The Disability Rights Movement,
39.