A Disability History of the United States (33 page)
Read A Disability History of the United States Online
Authors: Kim E. Nielsen
12.
Fleischman and Zames,
The Disability Rights Movement,
41.
13.
Rick Mayes and Allan V. Horwitz, “DSM III and the Revolution in the Classification of Mental Illness,”
Journal of the History of Behavioral Sciences
41, no. 3 (Summer 2005): 255; Gerald Grob,
The Mad Among Us: A History of the Care of America’s Mentally Ill
(Boston: Harvard University Press)
,
287.
14.
Michael A. Rembis, “The New Asylums: Madness and Mass Incarceration in the Neoliberal Era.” Work in progress. Cited with the author’s permission.
15.
Lindsey M. Patterson, “Building Communities and Breaking Down Barriers: Disability Rights Activism 1959–1968,” paper presented at a meeting of the American Historical Association, Chicago, January 2012. Cited with author’s permission.
16.
Scotch,
From Good Will to Civil Rights
, 54. See also Fleischman and Zames,
The Disability Rights Movement,
chap. 4.
17.
Scotch,
From Good Will to Civil Rights
, 56–57.
18.
“Handicapped People Draw Notice,”
Denton (TX) Record Chronicle
, January 8, 1971; “Question Line” of the
Charleston (WV) Daily Mail
, May 15, 1972;
Greeley (CO) Daily Tribune
, March 25, 1977; “Helena Handicapped to Organize,”
Independent Record
(Helena, MT), August 30, 1977; “The Handicapped Join Push for Equality,”
Kennebeck Journal
(Augusta, ME), September 22, 1977;
Lima (OH) News
, August 12, 1973.
19.
Department of Education,
History: Twenty-Five Years of Progress in Educating Children with Disabilities through IDEA
(Washington, DC: Office of Special Education Programs, 2008), available on the website of the US Department of Education,
www.ed.gov
.
20.
Flesichman and Zames,
The Disability Rights Movement,
51, 59.
21.
Scotch,
From Good Will to Civil Rights
, 111–16; Barnartt and Scotch,
Disability Protests,
165–66; Fleischman and Zames,
The Disability Rights Movement,
53–56;
Independent Press Telegram
(Long Beach, CA), April 9, 1977;
Independent Press Telegram
, April 16, 1977.
22.
Susan Schweik, “Lomax’s Matrix: Disability, Solidarity, and the Black Power of 504,”
Disability Studies Quarterly
31, no. 1 (2011); Scotch,
From Good Will to Civil Rights
, 111–16; Barnartt and Scotch,
Disability Protests,
165–66; Fleischman and Zames,
The Disability Rights Movement,
53–56; Shapiro,
No Pity,
64–70.
23.
“Disabled Woman Claims Bias by Sheriff,”
Syracuse (NY) Post-Standard
, April 22, 1975.
24.
Greeley (CO) Daily Tribune
, March 25, 1977.
25.
Zanesville (OH)
Times Recorder
, July 16, 1976.
26.
Shapiro,
No Pity,
28; Paul S. Miller obituary,
Washington Post
, October 21, 2010; Paul S. Miller obituary,
New York Times
, October 21, 2010.
27.
Paul K. Longmore, “Why I Burned My Book,” in
Why I Burned My Book and Other Essays on Disability
(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003), 231, 249, 253.
28.
Shapiro,
No Pity,
26; “Parents without Powers,”
Los Angeles Times
, July 26, 1992; Jay Mathews,
A Mother’s Touch: The Tiffany Callo Story
(New York: Henry Holt, 1992).
29.
Termination of Parental Rights
(Minneapolis: Center for Advanced Studies in Child Welfare, University of Minnesota, 2011), available at
http://www.cehd.umn.edu/ssw
, accessed November 27, 2011; Elizabeth Lightfoot, Katharine Hill, Traci LaLiberte, “The Inclusion of Disability as a Condition for Termination of Parental Rights,”
Child Abuse & Neglect
34, no. 2 (December 2010): 927–34; “Bill Seeks to Amend Law to Terminate Parental Rights Due to Mental Illness,”
Mental Health Weekly
19, no. 10 (March 3, 2009), 7; Christine Breeden, Rhoda Olkin, Daniel J. Taube, “Child Custody Evaluations When One Divorcing Parent Has a Physical Disability,”
Rehabilitation Psychology
53, no. 4 (November 2008): 445–55.
30.
September 9, 1974, press release, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 5, Minnesota Historical Society. Emphasis in original.
31.
Audrey Benson to Lionel Lewis, January 9, 1975, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 4, Correspondence, 1974, Minnesota Historical Society. The CIC handled records and finances for the UHF through at least part of 1974. See June 3, 1975, letter from Ronnie Stone, Box 4, Correspondence, June–Dec 1975, United Handicapped Federation, Minnesota Historical Society; Nancy Sopkowiak, “Bjerkesett Honored,”
Access Press
19, no. 7 (July 10, 2008),
http://www.accesspress.org
, accessed November 27, 2011.
32.
Michael Bjerkesett to John Mykelbust, February 12, 1975, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 4, Correspondence, 1975, Minnesota Historical Society; Michael Bjerkesett to Hubert H. Humphrey, January 31, 1975, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 4, Correspondence, 1974, Minnesota Historical Society.
33.
Michael Bjerkesett to Rep. Russell Stanton, St. Paul, February 14, 1975, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 4, Correspondence, 1974, Minnesota Historical Society.
34.
Audrey Benson to Donald Engle, president, Minnesota Orchestral Association, July 11, 1975, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 4, Minnesota Historical Society; press release, August 8, 1975, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 5, Minnesota Historical Society; press release, November 21, 1974, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 5, Minnesota Historical Society.
35.
Press release, January 23, 1976, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 5, Minnesota Historical Society; Mary Johnson and Barrett Shaw, eds.,
To Ride the Public’s Buses: The Fight that Built a Movement
(Louisville, KY: Advocado Press, 2001), 140. The latter does a great job of telling the story of disability activism on transit issues.
36.
Thomas Junilla to Northwestern Bell Telephone Company, October 13, 1976, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 4, 1976; Harry G. Lang,
A Phone of Our Own: The Deaf Insurrection Against Ma Bell
(Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 2000); Audrey Benson to Minnesota Teamsters Public Employees Union Local 320, Minneapolis, June 18, 1976, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 4, Minnesota Historical Society.
37.
United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 10, Minnesota Historical Society; Stephan Marincel to William Mahlum (UHF attorney), September 1977, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 4, Minnesota Historical Society.
38.
Scott Rostron, “The Progress,” August 1977, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 2, Minnesota Historical Society.
39.
United Handicapped Federation, July 14, 1978 delegate assembly notes, United Handicapped Federation Records, Minnesota Historical Society; Peg Edel, Director of Rape and Sexual Assault, Neighborhood Involvement Program, Minneapolis, to Frances Strong, January 9, 1979, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 4, Minnesota Historical Society. For more on the early emerging relationship between feminism and disability rights, see: Marian Blackwell-Stratton et al., “Smashing Icons: Disabled Women and the Disability and Women’s Movements,” in
Women with Disabilities: Essays in Psychology, Culture, and Politics
, ed. Michelle Fine and Adrienne Asch (Philadelphia: Temple University Press), 306–32; Pamela Brandwein and Richard K. Scotch, “The Gender Analogy in the Disability Discrimination Literature,”
Ohio State Law Journal
62, no. 465 (2001).
40.
Frances Strong, conference report, July 14, 1979, Conference on Sexual and Physical Assault of Disabled People, United Handicapped Federation Records, Minnesota Historical Society; press release, March 23, 1982, United Handicapped Federation Records, Box 5, Minnesota Historical Society.
41.
Letter to the Editor, September 2, 1975,
Minneapolis Star
, United Handicapped Federation Records, clippings, Minnesota Historical Society.
42.
Barnartt and Scotch,
Disability Protests,
197–201.
43.
Steve Bailey,
Athlete First: A History of the Paralympic Movement
(Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2008); Victoria Ann Lewis, “Radical Wallflowers: Disability and the People’s Theater,”
Radical History Review
94 (2006): 84–110; Victoria Ann Lewis, ed.,
Beyond Victims and Villains: Contemporary Plays by Disabled Playwrights
(New York: Theatre Communications Group, 2006).
44.
For more on the ADA, see: Barnartt and Scotch,
Disability Protests,
169–74; Edward D. Berkowitz, “A Historical Preface to the Americans with Disabilities Act,”
Journal of Policy History
6, no. 1 (1994): 96–119; H. McCarthy, “A Belated Appreciation of Justin Dart (1930–2002),”
Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin
46, no. 4 (June 2003): 242–44.
45.
Eli Clare,
Exile and Pride: Disability, Queerness, and Liberation
(Boston: South End Press, 2009), 160.
46.
Ibid., 107.
Please note that page numbers are not accurate for the e-book edition.
Able-Disabled Club, 167
Ableism, xii, xiv, 48, 154–56, 179, 181–83; and citizenship, 52; education, 137; and immigration, 106, 109–10; and labor, 46–47, 74, 109–10, 128–29, 134–35, 151–52
Abolition, 52, 58–60, 67–68
Accessibility, 74, 146–47; Architectural Barriers Act, 165; disability rights movement, 150, 151, 161, 163, 165, 174–78, 181; Warm Springs, 140
ADA.
See
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
Adams, John, 33, 49
ADAPT, 176
Adaptive equipment, 129, 146; canes, 85; prostheses, 80, 85–86, 126–27; wheelchairs, 80, 139–41, 161, 163, 171, 180
African Americans, 80, 93, 100, 112, 136–38, 140–41, 160–62, 169; civic life, 50, 96; institutionalization, 91–93, 122–23; war, 82–83, 85–87, 133, 146.
See also
slavery
Alabama, 75, 91–92
Alabama Insane Hospital, 91–92
Alabama School for the Deaf, 98
Alcott, Louisa May, 79
Algonquin, 16–17
American Asylum for the Deaf, 67
American Federation of Labor.
See
AFL-CIO
American Federation of the Physically Handicapped (AFPH), 150–54
American Revolution, 38–39, 49–50, 52–56, 65–66, 68–69, 75–76, 80, 86
American Sign Language (ASL), 98, 133, 137, 177, 179
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 161, 180; ADA Amendments Act, 181
Amputation, 128, 149–50, 170; and industrialization, 125–26; and slavery, 59; and veterans, 53–54, 79, 84–85, 87
Apache, 4–5
Arc, 143–44
Architectural Barriers Act (ABA), 165, 180
Arkansas, 87, 92
Asian Americans, 3, 103, 105, 140.
See also
Chinese Americans
ASL.
See
American Sign Language (ASL)
Asylums, 35, 37, 66–67, 69–75, 92, 96, 98–99, 102, 115, 144, 164.
See also
individual asylums
Aztec, 41
Barnum, P. T., 89–90
Bassoff, Sylvia Flexer, 132–33
Beecher, Catharine, 94
Bell, Alexander Graham, 97
Benson, Audrey, 173, 175
Berkeley’s Center for Independent Living, 163
Berry, James H., 87
Biard, Pierre, 13, 19
Bjerkesett, Michael, 173–74
Blackham, Sandra, 170
Black Lung Association (BLA), 159
Black lung disease, 158–60
Black Panthers, 169
Blackwell’s Island, 144
Blatt, Burton, 145
Blind Veterans Association (BVA), 153–56
Blindness, 32, 54, 77, 84, 115, 151, 162, 178; and epidemics, 15, 18, 39, 45–46, 124; and First Nations, 4–6, 10; institutions, 68, 72–74, 92–93, 95–96, 129–30, 137; and labor, 35, 170; and slaves, 61, 63–66
Bly, Nellie, 144
Bradford, William, 16–17, 21
Brewster, John, Jr., 67
Bridgeman, Laura, 68
Brown, Ebenezer, 53–55
Buck, Carrie, 117
Buck, Mara and Benomi, 23–24
Buck, Pearl, 142–43
Buck v. Bell
, 117, 131
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), 120–21
Cabez de Vaca, Álvar Núñez, 14
Califano, Joseph, 168–69
California, 65, 76, 89, 105, 124, 146, 162, 168–69, 171–72, 175, 177
California Department of Rehabilitation, 162, 168
Capitalism, 20, 56, 125
Cartwright, Samuel, 57
Catawbas, 40, 65
Catholic Interracial Council (CIC), 173
Cayugas, 1
Census, 117; 1840 census, 63–64, 91; 1870 census, 72
Cerebral palsy, 4, 6, 20, 151, 172, 173
Cherokee, 40, 65, 72–73
Cherokee Asylum for the Insane, Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, 72–73
Cherry v. Matthews
, 168
Chinese Americans, 105, 126
Chippewa, 120
Christmas in Purgatory
(Blatt and Kaplan), 145
Chumash, 65
Citizenship, 49–52, 75–77, 88, 101–10, 129, 133, 136, 150, 160–61, 173
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 166, 180
Civil War, 42, 76, 79–88, 91–92, 94, 96–98, 111, 123, 125
Clarke, Edward H., 94, 95, 116
Class, 35, 47–48, 68, 86–89, 97, 101, 104, 109–13, 128–29, 151, 159
Clemens, Jean, 119
Clerc, Laurent, 67
Cleveland Cripple Survey, 127–28
Cleveland Placement Bureau, 148–49
Clow, Clara, 161, 165
Cognitive disabilities, 47, 130; and curative treatment, 38, 39; and disability rights movement, 176–77, 180; and European colonists, 19, 20, 22; and First Nations, 2, 3, 4, 18; institutions, 37–39, 71–72, 130, 144–45, 164; and parent advocacy groups, 142–45; and slavery, 46, 63.
See also
idiocy
Colonialism, 12–19, 40–41, 64–65, 69, 118, 123
Colorado, 126, 146, 167, 170, 175
Commission on Employment of the Handicapped (PCEH), 165–66
Committee on Vocational Training for Disabled Soldiers, 127
Cone, Kitty, 169
Confiscation Acts, 93
Connecticut, 25, 37–38, 67
Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons, 51, 68
Coolidge, Calvin, 100, 129–30
Coolidge, Samuel, 31–34, 36
Craig Colony for Epileptics, 118
Crownsville State Hospital, 92
Dakota Sioux, 120
Danforth, Thomas, 24
Dart, Justin, 181
Davenport, Charles, 101
Day, Mary L., 73–74
Deafness, 59, 64, 74, 127, 133–37, 149–50, 162, 176–77, 179; epidemics, 15, 18, 39; and First Nations, 4, 6, 8, 14; and immigration, 108, 115; institutions, 51, 66–68, 72–73, 92, 95–98, 129–30
Deaf President Now (DPN) campaign, 179
Deffner, Hugo, 165
Deinstitutionalization, 163–64
Delaware, 76
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 153
Department of Labor, 152–53
Díaz del Castillo, Bernal, 14
Disability: definition of, xiv–xv, 2, 48, 74–75, 95, 109
Disability Rag
, 179
Disability rights activism, 132–34, 136–38, 142–44, 148, 150–81
Disability rights movement, 156–81
Disabled American Veterans, 154
Disabled Citizens of Frederick County United, 161
Disabled in Action, 166
Disabled Miners and Widows, 157–60
Disabled Students’ Program (DSP), 163
Disease, xiv, 53, 68, 88, 89, 113, 153; and European colonists, 20; and First Nations peoples, 9, 11, 15–19, 21, 40–41, 47, 65, 123–24; and immigration, 104, 107; and slavery, 43–46, 91.
See also
individual diseases
Dix, Dorothea L., 70–71, 144
Doctors.
See
physicians
Douglass, Frederick, 52, 63
Dyer, Mary, 28–30
Easter Seals, 148, 165, 169
Eastman, Crystal, 125–26
Education, xiv, xvi, xix, 38, 54, 66, 71, 81, 118, 129, 132; and blind people, 67–68, 73–74, 137; and deaf people, 14–15; 51–52, 67, 94–98, 136–37; disability rights movement, 150–51, 161, 167, 181; higher education, 66–68, 82, 88, 141–42, 181; and Samuel Gridley Howe, 67–68; and idiocy, 67–68, 71–72; racially segregated, 136–37; women, xv, 52, 66, 94–96, 115–16
Education Act of 1975, 180
Ellis Island, 103–8
Emergency Relief Bureau, 132
Emerman, Anne, 141–42
Epidemics, 15–19, 39–40, 65, 138–40
Epilepsy, 110–13, 116–19, 151
Eugenics, 101, 110–13, 116, 143
Evans, Dale, 143
Fairchild, Lucius, 87
Family life, 55, 111–15, 125, 138–39; child custody, 172; and economic security, 25–27, 32–36, 47, 118, 133–34, 151; First Nations, 1–5, 8, 121–22; shame, 36, 72, 84, 119, 131
Faribault School for the Deaf.
See
Minnesota School for the Deaf
Federal Security Administration, 152–53
Feminism, 160–63, 177–78
First Nations, 1–11, 13–14, 15–19, 40–41, 58, 65, 69, 72–73, 97, 119–24.
See also
individual Native American tribes
Florida, 13–14, 167
Freak shows, 89–91
Freedom Riders, 141
Gallaudet, Edward, 67
Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins, 67
Gallaudet College, 67, 95–98, 149, 179
Gender, xiii, xvii, 35–36, 47, 50, 101, 129, 150, 155, 161–62, 180, 182; and femininity, 50, 52, 66, 94, 109–10, 115–16; and masculinity, 41, 84, 86–87; and monstrous births, 27–30; and race, 58
Georgia, 72, 92, 137–39
Gillette State Hospital for Crippled Children, 138–39
Goffman, Erving, 162
Goldsboro Hospital for the Colored Insane, 91–92
Great Depression, 131–37
Hamer, Fannie Lou, 141
Hamilton, Marilyn, 180
Handicapped American of the Year, 165
Hanger, James E., 85
Hanson, Olof, 97
Harrison, Benjamin, 124–25
Hebrew Immigrant Sheltering and Aid Society, 108
Henry, Sarah Shelton, 34, 36
Hiawatha Asylum for Insane Indians, 119–23
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 117
Homestead Steel Works, 125–26
Homosexuality, 104–5, 107, 115–16, 160–61, 169, 181–82
Hopi, 4, 10
Hospitals, 53–54, 66, 132, 137–39, 154–55.
See also
individual hospitals
Howe, Samuel Gridley, 67–68, 71–72
Huemann, Judy, 163
Hummer, Harry, 120–22
Humphrey, Hubert, 166
Huron, 13, 16
Hutchinson, Anne, 28–30
Idiocy, xix, 26, 27, 35, 37, 66, 70; citizenship, 50–51, 76; definition of, 21–22; and education, 67–68, 71–72, 92; and immigration, 75, 103; and legal rights, 21–25; and slavery, 64; and sterilization, 102, 110, 115.
See also
cognitive disabilities
Illinois, 89, 101, 128, 134, 154, 163, 169
Immigration, 51, 75–76, 97, 100–110, 115, 129; LPC clauses, 75–76, 109
Immigration Act of 1882, 103
Immigration Act of 1924, 103
Independent Living Movement, 35, 154, 162–64
Indiana, 102, 113, 115, 157
Indigenous North Americans.
See
First Nations
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 167
Industrialization, 51, 56, 88–89, 98, 101, 110, 125–27, 129, 182
Infantile paralysis.
See
polio
Insanity.
See
lunacy; psychological disabilities
Institute for Deaf, Dumb and Blind Colored Youth, 137
Institutionalization, xix, 35–38, 50–52, 66–75, 84, 88, 92–93, 95–99, 111–23, 129–30, 142, 144–45; and First Nations peoples, 3, 72–73, 119–23; Warm Springs, 140–41.
See also
deinstitutionalization
Invalid Corps, 79–80, 82–83, 85
Iowa, 76, 134–35, 177
Iroquois, 1, 10, 16, 41
Jarvis, Edward, 64
Jefferson, Elizabeth, 35–36
Jefferson, Thomas, 35, 57
Johnson, Charles F., 79, 82–83
Kansas, 81
Kaplan, Fred, 145
Keller, Helen, 68, 137
Kemp, Evan, 181
Kennedy, Eunice Shriver, 143
Kennedy, John, 143
Kennedy, Robert, 145
Kennedy, Rosemary, 143
Kenny, Elizabeth, 140
Kentucky, 92, 157
Kiowa, 40
Knott, Josiah C., 57–58
Labor, 20, 26–27, 39, 51, 53–56, 70, 146–49; and disability rights movement, 151–54, 161, 167, 170–72, 175; and disease, 17–18; and immigration, 103, 105, 107–10; and industrial accidents, 125–27; and mine workers, 157–60; and sheltered workshops, 176–77; and slavery, 59–62; and veterans, 46, 53, 54–55, 76, 80–82, 86, 127–29, 150, 153–55; and women, 86–87.
See also
unemployment
Lakin State Hospital for the Colored Insane, 92
Lakota Sioux, 120, 123
Laughlin, Harry, 101–2, 113
League of the Physically Handicapped, 132–33, 136
Legal frameworks, 50, 56, 98, 182; colonial era, 21–23, 25–26, 27; and the Great Law, 1–2; and immigration, 75, 100, 105; and institutionalization, 68–69; and slavery, 61, 63; and sterilization, 102, 110, 113–15, 116–17.
Le Rodeur
, 44–45
Lexington School for the Deaf, 134
Lights Out
, 155
Lomax, Brad, 169
Longmore, Paul, 171–72
Louisiana, 16, 59, 64–65, 76, 87, 92
Lunacy: care for, 25, 27; and citizenship, xix, 50; cure of, 39, 40; definition of, 22; and immigration, 75, 102; institutions, 37, 84.
See also
psychological disabilities
Maine, 64, 70, 167
March of Dimes, 140–41
Maryland, 73, 76, 92, 161
Maryland Institute for the Blind, 73
Massachusetts, 53, 58, 69, 70, 76, 90, 145, 169; colonial, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 31–33, 36, 74; and Dorothea Dix, 72; and Samuel Gridley Howe, 68, 71–72; and LPC clause, 75
Massachusetts School for Idiotic Children and Youth, 72
Mather, Cotton, 26, 30, 36, 39
McKoy, Christine and Millie, 62
Measles, 15, 17
Media, 143–45, 164
Medicine, 11, 53, 66, 68, 70
Menominee, 120
Metropolitan Transit Commission of Minneapolis/St. Paul, 175–76
Mexican Americans, 104
Michigan, 79, 124
Miller, Paul S., 171
Miners for Democracy, 159
Minnesota, 76, 97, 138, 172–79
Minnesota School for the Deaf, 97
Mississippi, 85, 92–93, 141
Mohawks, 1
Montana, 124, 167
Montana Coalition of Handicapped Individuals (MCHI), 167