The Design of Everyday Things (55 page)

229
    
Nielsen:
Jakob Nielsen's argument that five users is the ideal number for most tests can be found on the Nielsen Norman group's website (Nielsen, 2013).

233
    
Three goals:
Marc Hassenzahl's use of the three levels of goals (be-goals, do-goals, and motor-goals) is described in many places, but I strongly recommend his book
Experience Design
(Hassenzahl, 2010). The three goals come from the work of Charles Carver and Michael Scheier in their landmark book on the use of feedback models, chaos, and dynamical theory to explain much of human behavior (Carver & Scheier, 1998).

246
    
Age and performance:
A good review of the impact of age on human factors is provided by Frank Schieber (2003). The report by Igo Grossman and
colleagues is a typical example of research showing that careful studies reveal superior performance with age (Grossmann et al., 2010).

254
    
Swatch International Time:
Swatch's development of .beat time and the French decimal time are discussed in the Wikipedia article on decimal time (Wikipedia contributors, 2013b).

CHAPTER SEVEN: DESIGN IN THE WORLD OF BUSINESS

261
    
Creeping featurism:
A note for the technology historians. I've managed to trace the origin of this term to a talk by John Mashey in 1976 (Mashey, 1976). At that time Mashey was a computer scientist at Bell Laboratories, where he was one of the early developers of UNIX, a well-known computer operating system (which is still active as Unix, Linux, and the kernel underlying Apple's Mac OS).

262
    
Youngme Moon:
Youngme Moon's book
Different: Escaping the Competitive Herd
(Moon, 2010) argues that “If there is one strain of conventional wisdom pervading every company in every industry, it is the importance of competing hard to differentiate yourself from the competition. And yet going head-to-head with the competition—with respect to features, product augmentations, and so on—has the perverse effect of making you just like everyone else.” (From the jacket of her book: see
http://youngmemoon.com/Jacket.html
.)

266
    
Word-gesture system:
The word-gesture system that works by tracing the letters on the screen keyboard to type rapidly and efficiently (although not as fast as with a traditional ten-finger keyboard) is described in considerable detail by Shumin Zhai and Per Ola Kristensson, two of the developers of this method of typing (Zhai & Kristensson, 2012).

269
    
Multitouch screens:
In the more than thirty years multitouch screens have been in the laboratories, numerous companies have launched products and failed. Nimish Mehta is credited with the invention of multitouch, discussed in his master's thesis (1982) from the University of Toronto. Bill Buxton (2012), one of the pioneers in this field, provides a valuable review (he was working with multitouch displays in the early 1980s at the University of Toronto). Another excellent review of multitouch and gestural systems in general (as well as design principles) is provided by Dan Saffer in his book
Designing Gestural Interfaces
(2009). The story of Fingerworks and Apple is readily found by searching the web for “Fingerworks.”

270
    
Stigler's law:
See the comment about this in the notes for
Chapter 2
.

271
    
Telephonoscope:
The illustration of the “Telephonoscope” was originally published in the December 9, 1878, issue of the British magazine
Punch
(for its 1879 Almanack). The picture comes from Wikipedia (Wikipedia contributors, 2013d), where it is in the public domain because of its age.

276
    
QWERTY keyboard:
The history of the QWERTY keyboard is discussed in numerous articles. I thank Professor Neil Kay of University of Strathclyde for our e-mail correspondence and his article “Rerun the
Tape of History and QWERTY Always Wins” (2013). This article led me to the “QWERTY People Archive” website by the Japanese researchers Koichi and Motoko Yasuoka, an incredibly detailed, valuable resource for those interested in the history of the keyboard, and in particular, of the QWERTY configuration (Yasuoka & Yasuoka, 2013). The article on the typewriter in the 1872
Scientific American
is fun to read: the style of
Scientific American
has changed drastically since then (Anonymous, 1872).

278
    
Dvorak keyboard:
Is Dvorak faster than QWERTY? Yes, but not by much: Diane Fisher and I studied a variety of keyboard layouts. We thought that alphabetically organized keys would be superior for beginners. No, they weren't: we discovered that knowledge of the alphabet was not useful in finding the keys. Our studies of alphabetical and Dvorak keyboards were published in the journal
Human Factors
(Norman & Fisher, 1984). Admirers of the Dvorak keyboard claim much more than a 10 percent improvement, as well as faster learning rates and less fatigue. But I will stick by my studies and my statements. If you want to read more, including a worthwhile treatment of the history of the typewriter, see the book
Cognitive Aspects of Skilled Typewriting
, edited by William E. Cooper, which includes several chapters of research from my laboratory (Cooper, W. E., 1963; Norman & Fisher, 1984; Norman & Rumelhart, 1963; Rumelhart & Norman, 1982).

278
    
Keyboard ergonomics:
Health aspects of keyboards are reported in National Institute of Health (2013).

279
    
Incremental and radical innovation:
The Italian business professor Roberto Verganti and I discuss the principles of incremental and radical innovation (Norman & Verganti, 2014; Verganti, 2009, 2010).

281
    
Hill climbing:
There are very good descriptions of the hill-climbing process for design in Christopher Alexander's book
Notes on the Synthesis of Form
(1964) and Chris Jones's book
Design Methods
(1992; also see Jones, 1984).

286
    
Humans versus machines:
The remarks by MIT professor Erik Brynjolfsson were made in his talk at the June 2012 National Academy of Engineering symposium on manufacturing, design, and innovation (Brynjolfsson, 2012). His book, coauthored with Andrew McAfee—
Race Against the Machine: How the Digital Revolution Is Accelerating Innovation, Driving Productivity, and Irreversibly Transforming Employment and the Economy—
contains an excellent treatment of design and innovation (Brynjolfsson & McAfee, 2011).

290
    
Interactive media:
Al Gore's interactive media book is
Our Choice
(2011). Some of the videos from my early interactive book are still available: see Norman (1994 and 2011b).

295
    
Rise of the small:
The section “The Rise of the Small” is taken from my essay written for the hundredth anniversary of the Steelcase company, reprinted here with Steelcase's permission (Norman, 2011a).

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