The United Nations Security Council and War:The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945 (158 page)
Authors: Adam Roberts,Vaughan Lowe,Jennifer Welsh,Dominik Zaum
3
Cameron Hume,
The United Nations, Iran and Iraq: How Peacemaking Changed
(Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1994), 188.
4
James A. Baker,
The Politics of Diplomacy: Revolution, War and Peace, 1989—1992
(New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1995), 16.
5
Only Iraq, Libya, and the PLO voted against the proposal. Importantly, Syria as well as Egypt joined in military action against Iraq in early 1991.
6
Top ten troop contributions were: USA (550,000); Saudi Arabia (118,000); Turkey (100,000); UK (43,000); Egypt (40,000); UAE (40,000); Oman (25,500); France (18,000); Syria (17,000); Kuwait (11,000). The US flew 86% of all sorties during the campaign and provided the vast bulk of all military hardware: on this latter point see Anthony H. Cordesman,
U.S. Forces in the Middle East: Resources and Capabilities
(Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), 62–3.
7
George Bush and Brent Scowcroft,
A World Transformed
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 303.
8
Ibid.
9
SC Res. 669 of 24 Sep. 1990. The Council later established the UN Compensation Commission (UNCC) to deal with complaints arising from the Iraq-Kuwait conflict (SC Res. 692 of 20 May 1991). It awarded US $52.5 billion in compensation. See generally Andrea Gattini, ‘The UN Compensation Commission: Old Rules, New Procedures on War Reparations’,
European Journal of International Law
13, no. 1 (2002), 161–81.
10
See Hume,
The United Nations
, 207–8.
11
SC Res. 673 of 24 Oct. 1990.
12
Abraham D. Sofaer, ‘Asking the U.N. is Asking for Trouble’,
Wall Street Journal
, Editorial, 5 Nov. 1990, A14.
13
George H. W. Bush, ‘Address before the 45th Session of the United Nations General Assembly in New York, New York’, 1 Oct. 1990.
14
Bush and Scowcroft,
A World Transformed
, 399–400.
15
Persian Gulf War Resolution
, House Joint Resolution 77, 12 Jan. 1991.
16
John Goshko, ‘U.N. Chief Issues Plea as Peace Efforts Fail; Opposition Scuttles France’s Proposal’,
Washington Post
, 16 Jan. 1991, A6.
17
Bush and Scowcroft,
A World Transformed
, 463–4. See also Baker,
The Politics of Diplomacy
, 435–8.
18
Interview by Don Imus with George H. W. Bush, 1 Sep. 2004,
MSNBC.
19
SC Res. 687 of 3 Apr. 1991.
20
For further discussion of this distinction, see James Cockayne and David Malone, ‘The UN Security Council: 10 Lessons from Iraq on Regulation and Accountability’,
Journal of International Law and International Relations
2, no. 2 (2006), 1–24.
21
Nicholas J. Wheeler,
Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 141.
22
Leonard Doyle, Steve Boggan, and Safa Haeri, ‘Security Council abandons Kurds to their fate with non intervention policy’,
Independent
, 4 Apr. 1991, 1.
23
See Simon Chesterman,
Just War or Just Peace? Humanitarian Intervention and International Law
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 132.
24
Cuba, Yemen, and Zimbabwe voted against; China and India abstained.
25
J. E. Stromseth, ‘Iraq’ in L. E. Damrosch, (ed.),
Enforcing Restraint: Collective Intervention in Internal Conflicts
(New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1993), 81; Wheeler,
Saving Strangers
, 141–6.
26
See especially
A. Aust, Legal Counsellor, FCO, statement before HC Foreign Affairs Committee
, 2 Dec. 1992, in ‘United Kingdom Materials on International Law 1992’in
British Yearbook of International Law
LXIII, 827.
27
James Bone, ‘UN Envoy Pours Cold Water on Kurd Refugee Plan’,
The Times
, 10 Apr. 1991.
28
Doyle, Leonard, ‘West and UN Shamed into Aiding the Kurds’,
Independent
, 18 Apr. 1991.
29
Wheeler,
Saving Strangers
, 149–50.
30
Operation Provide Comfort After Action Report (U)
, Headquarters United States European Command/ECJ3, 29 Jan. 1992.
31
Barton Gellman, ‘Last Coalition Units Are Leaving Iraq; Ultimatums Issued to Protect Kurds’,
Washington Post
, 13 July 1991, Ai; D. Hiro,
Desert Shield to Desert Storm: The Second Gulf War
(London: HarperCollins, 1992), 416–17.
32
Following the US withdrawal, a Western rapid reaction force (‘Operation Poised Hammer’) was stationed at the Incirlik airbase in Turkey, as a security guarantee for the Kurds.
33
See Michael Ignatieff, ‘State-failure and nation-building’, in J. L. Holzgrefe and Robert O. Keohane (eds.),
Humanitarian Intervention: Ethical, Legal and Political Dilemmas
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 308.
34
The Fall of Srebrenica
, UN doc. A/54/549 of 15 Nov. 1999.
35
Report on humanitarian needs in Iraq in the immediate post-crisis environment by a mission to the area led by the Under-Secretary-General for Administration and Management, 10–17 March V)91, UN
doc. S/22366 of 20 Mar. 1991, para. 8.
36
See also SC Res. 712 of 19 Sep. 1991.
37
SC Res. 706 of 15 Aug. 1991, para. 3. See also SC Res. 778 of 2 Oct. 1992, para. 5(c)(ii).
38
Madeleine K. Albright, ‘A Humanitarian Exception to the Iraqi Sanctions’, US Department of State Dispatch 6/17, 24 Apr. 1995; James Traub, ‘Off target’,
The New Republic
232/6 (2005).
39
Sarah Graham-Brown,
Sanctioning Saddam: The Politics of Intervention in Iraq
(London: I. B. Tauris, 1999), 80.
40
SC Res. 986 of 14 Apr. 1995.
41
UN doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/RES/1997/35 of 28 Aug. 1997; David Cortright and George Lopez, ‘Reforming Sanctions’, in David M. Malone, (ed.),
The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century
(Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004).
42
SC Res. 1538 of 21 Apr. 2004; and Independent Inquiry Committee,
Report on the Management of the Oil-for-Food Programme
, I, 4.
43
Oil-For-Food Facts, ‘Oil-For-Food: FAQ’,
www.oilforfoodfacts.com/faq.aspx
See also Independent Inquiry Committee into the United Nations Oil-for-Food Programme,
The Impact of the Oil-for-Food Programme on the Iraqi People: Report of an Independent Working Group established by the Independent Inquiry Committee
(7 Sep. 2005), 177, 179.
44
Oil-for-Food Facts, ‘Oil-For-Food: FAQ’.
45
See for example David Cortright et al.,
Political Gain and Civilian Pain: Humanitarian Impacts of Economic Sanctions
(Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1997).
46
‘Iraq Liberation Act of 1998’, H.R. 4655, 31 Oct. 1998.
47
George A. Lopez and David Cortright, ‘Containing Iraq: Sanctions Worked’,
Foreign Affairs
83, no. 4 (2004), 97.
48
James Cockayne and David Malone, ‘Creeping Unilateralism: How Operation Provide Comfort and the No-Fly Zones in 1991 and 1992 Paved the Way for the Iraq Crisis of 2003’,
Security Dialogue
37, no. 1 (Mar. 2006), 123–41.
49
‘Letter to Congressional Leaders reporting on Iraq’s Compliance with UN SCRs’,
Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents
29 (19 Jan. 1993), 67.
50
David Von Drehle and R. Jeffrey Smith, ‘U.S. Strikes Iraq for Plot to Kill Bush’,
Washington Post
, 27 June 1993, A1; see also Alan D. Surchin, ‘Terror and the Law: The Unilateral Use of Force and the June 1993 Bombing of Baghdad’,
Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law
5 (1995), 459.
51
SC Res. 949 of 15 Oct. 1994.
52
Barbara Crossette, ‘U.N. Council Unanimous In Condemning Iraq Move’,
New York Times
, 17 Oct. 1994, 10.
53
Richard Butler,
Talk
(Sep. 1999), 198.
54
SC Res. 487 of 19 June 1981.
55
‘Vice President Honors Veterans of Korean War’,
White House Office of the Press Secretary
, 29 Aug. 2002.
56
David M. Malone, ‘Iraq: No Easy Response to the Greatest Threat’,
American Journal of International Law
95, no. 1 (2001), 235–45.
57
SC Res. 715 of 11 Oct. 1991.
58
Graham-Brown,
Sanctioning Saddam
, 84; see also UN doc. S/1995/864 of 11 Oct. 1995.
59
SC Res. 1051 of 27 Mar. 1996, and SC Res. 1060 of 12 June 1996.
60
Rolf Ekéus interview, 28 May 2005.
61
SC Res. 1137 of 12 Nov. 1997.
62
John M. Goshko, ‘Security Council Debate Reflects Continued Split on Iraq’,
Washington Post
, 19 Dec. 1997, A20.
63
Martin Kettle, ‘Iraq crisis: The debate: White House scores a PR own goal’,
Guardian
, 19 Feb. 1998, 13.
64
Dilip Hiro,
Iraq: In the Eye of the Storm
(New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press/Nation Books, 2002), 116.
65
UN doc. S/1998/166 of 25 Feb. 1998.
66
John M. Goshko, ‘U.S. Says Questions Remain on Iraq Pact’,
Washington Post
, 25 Feb. 1998, A01.
67
‘Reversing Course on Iraq’,
Washington Post
, Editorial, 26 Feb. 1998, A14.
68
Tom Clancy with Tony Zinni and Tony Koltz,
Battle Ready
(New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 2004).
69
Tim Weiner, ‘U.S. Long View on Iraq: Patience in Containing the Ever-Deadlier Hussein’,
New York Times
, 3 Jan. 1999, 10.
70
Confidential interviews in Washington, Jan. 1999. See David M. Malone ‘Goodbye UNSCOM: A Sad Tale in UN-US Relations’,
Security Dialogue
30, no. 4 (Dec. 1999), 393–411.
71
Letter dated 27 Mar. 1999 from the Chairman of the panels established pursuant to the note by the President of the Security Council of 30 Jan. 1999 (S/1999/100) addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN doc. S/1999/356 of 30 Mar. 1999.
72
Richard Butler,
The Greatest Threat: Iraq, Weapons of Mass Destruction, and the Crisis of Global Security
(New York: Public Affairs, 2000), 200.
73
SC Res. 1284 of 17 Dec. 1999.
74
Teixeira da Silva, ‘Weapons of Mass Destruction’, in Malone,
The United Nations Security Council
, 213; and Hans Blix,
Disarming Iraq: The Search for Weapons of Mass Destruction
(New York: Pantheon, 2004), 59.
75
Condoleezza Rice, ‘Campaign 2000: Promoting the National Interest’,
Foreign Affairs
79, no. 1 (2000), 45–62.
76
Richard A. Clarke, interview with Leslie Stahl,
60 Minutes
, CBS, 21 Mar. 2004.
77
Jonathan S. Landay, Warren P. Strobel, and John Walcott, ‘Doubts Cast on Efforts to Link Saddam and Al-Qaeda’,
Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service
, 3 Mar. 2004.
78
Bob Woodward,
Plan of Attack
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004), 8, 38.
79
‘President Delivers State of the Union Address’,
White House Office of the Press Secretary
, 29 Jan. 2002.
80
President of the United States,
The National Security Strategy of the United States of America
(Washington, DC: The White House, 2002), 15.
81
General Assembly official records, 57th session: 2nd plenary meeting, 8.
82
Karen DeYoung, ‘Bush to Challenge U.N. on Iraqi Threat; President Will Demand Action Soon on Hussein’,
Washington Post
, 11 Sep. 2002, A13.
83
Jonathan Freedland, ‘Patten lays into Bush’s America: Fury at president’s “axis of evil” speech’,
Guardian
, 9 Feb. 2002, 1.
84
Steven Erlanger, ‘Stance on Bush Policy Could Swing Election in Germany’,
New York Times
, 9 Sep. 2002, 3. For analysis, see Anja Dalgaard-Nielsen, ‘Gulf War: The German Resistance’,
Survival
45, no. 1 (2003).
85
‘French Leader Offers America Both Friendship and Criticism’,
New York Times
, 9 Sep. 2002, 9.
86
UK Prime Minister Tony Blair,
NBC TV News
, 3 Apr. 2002.
87
‘The secret Downing Street memo’,
Sunday Times
, 1 May 2005.
88
Deputy Secretary Wolfowitz Interview with Sam Tannenhaus,
Vanity Fair
, 9 May 2003.
89
Mark Danner, ‘The Secret Way to War’,
New York Review of Books
52, no. 10, 9 June 2005.
90
Woodward,
Plan of Attack
, 178; Christopher Bluth, ‘The British road to war: Blair, Bush and the decision to invade Iraq’,
International Affairs
80, no. 5 (2004), 879.