Spillover: Animal Infections and the Next Human Pandemic (73 page)

Hipposideros larvatus
(intermediate roundleaf bat), 201

Hirsch, Vanessa M., 402

HIV (human immunodeficiency viruses), 40, 83, 164, 308, 512

    discovery of, 390–94

    as retroviruses, 288, 391–94

    SIV as progenitor of, 395–96

HIV-1, 24, 39, 268, 270, 307, 398

    evolutionary divergence of, 420–22, 463, 477

    genome of, 398–99, 405

    group N, 406, 477

    group O, 405–6, 413, 477

    lethality of, 296, 477

    mutation of, 420–21, 446, 482–83

    pathogenic mechanism of, 423

    recombination in, 482

    search for reservoir of, 402–5

    transmissibility of, 291, 292, 294, 297, 518–19

    
see also
AIDS

HIV-1, group M, 41–42, 405–6, 407, 413, 462, 463, 471

    chimpanzees as reservoir of, 313, 403–5, 423

    DRC60 gene sequence of, 409–13, 417, 419, 420–21, 431, 482, 488

    geographical dissemination of, 482–89

    SIV
cpz
as progenitor of, 395–96, 423, 424, 425, 426–27, 428, 437, 477

    subtype B of, 483–89

    subtypes of, 483

    ZR59 gene sequence of, 409, 420–21, 431, 463, 482, 488

HIV-2, 24, 39, 307, 397–98, 477

    genome of, 399, 463

    geographical dissemination of, 402–3

    groups of, 406, 483

    transmissibility of, 402–3

    virulence of, 402–3

    as zoonosis, 402, 413

HIV spillovers, 344, 385, 402, 404, 405–7, 409, 413, 421–22

    Cameroon as locus of, 42, 423, 425, 426–31, 437, 463, 477

    Central Africa as locus of, 423

    cut-hunter hypothesis of, 413, 428, 442–48, 453–62, 466, 477, 478

    mechanics of, 427–62, 466, 477

    oral polio vaccine (OPV) hypothesis of, 413–17, 421–22, 480–81

hog cholera (classical swine fever), 316

Holmes, Edward C., 306–7, 506

Holmes, Kathryn V., 347–48

Homeland Security Department, US, 513

homosexuals, male, AIDS in, 42, 385–86, 391, 407, 489, 519

Hong Kong:

    H5N1 (bird flu) in, 182, 508–9

    plague in, 517

    SARS in, 168, 169–70, 174–75, 177, 206, 207, 374

    wild civets in, 192–93

Hong Kong, University of, 170, 184, 190, 192–93, 207, 508

Hong Kong flu (1968), 504

Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 170, 193

Hooper, Edward, 415–17, 480

Hoover, Herbert, 214, 215

horses:

    Hendra virus in, 13–16, 19, 27–29, 31–32, 36, 38, 43, 45, 46–48,
343

    as recent immigrants to Australia, 36–37

horseshoe bats (
Rhinolophus
), 194–95, 201, 202

host-virus relationship:

    spillover and, 272, 343

    virulence and, 295–98, 396

Hot Zone, The
(Preston), 77–78, 92–94, 101

Hulbert, Peter, 18

human population growth:

    emerging pathogens and, 41, 515

    as outbreak, 496–97, 503

humans:

    ecosystem disruption by, 23, 40, 41, 62, 67, 161–62, 163–64, 237, 258, 343, 344–45, 369, 433–35, 439, 515–16

    as interconnected with other species, 14, 124, 343, 366, 515, 518

    spillover as unintended result of activity by, 39–42, 45, 161–62, 164, 237, 258, 343, 344–45, 515–16

human T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs), 391–93, 395

    
see also
HIV

Huygens, Christiaan, 118

Hygenic Laboratory, 214–15

Hypsignathus monstrosus
(hammer-headed fruit bat), 115–16, 122, 371–72

iatrogenic infections, 415

Iban people, 154, 157

ibuprofen, 362

ICDDR,B (International Center for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh), 328, 330, 375, 379–81

immortalized cell lineages, 184

immunodeficiency, 385, 387

“Increased Mortality and AIDS-like Immunopathology in Wild Chimpanzees Infected with SIV
cpz
” (Keele et al.), 476–77

incubation periods, 264–65

index cases, 25

India, 276

    AIDS in, 483

    
A. leucosphyrus
in, 163

    malaria in, 147

    polio in, 22

Indian Medical Service (IMS), 127–28

Indonesia, 152, 163, 276, 277

infectious disease:

    applied mathematics in research on, 129–35, 141–48

    artificiality of distinction between zoonotic and nonzoonotic, 137

    basic reproduction rate in,
see
R
0

    Burnet on, 234–37

    critical community size in, 129–30, 349

    dead-end hosts and, 83, 164, 294, 343, 373, 480

    ecological disturbance and, 23, 40, 41

    as ecosystems, 247, 251

    emergent and re-emergent, 42–45

    eradication of, 517–18

    future of, 42, 45

    germ theory of, 130, 265, 517

    immunity to, 129–30

    and population size of hosts, 303–6

    recovery rate in, 305

    superspreaders of, 172–73, 176–77, 206, 519

    thresholds of, 36, 144, 480

    traditional wisdom and, 88–89

infectious disease (
continued
)

    ubiquity of, 20

    
see also
epidemics; pandemics;
specific diseases and pathogens

Infectious Diseases of Humans
(Anderson and May), 303

Infectious Diseases Society of America (ISDA), 238–39, 259

    antitrust investigation of, 239

infectivity, 130, 143–44, 146, 372

    loss of, 133–34

    pre- vs. postsymptomatic, 207–8

influenza viruses, 237, 499, 512

    in birds, 313, 314, 505–6, 507–10

    characteristics of, 504, 507

    genomes of, 268, 307, 504

    mutation rate of, 506

    in pigs, 21, 39, 374, 507

    reassortment in, 506–8

    reservoir hosts of, 313, 505

    transmissibility of, 291

    as viruses, 24, 270

    as zoonoses, 14, 21, 42, 164, 505

    
see also
specific strains

Institut Pasteur, 390

interferon, 108

intermediate roundleaf bat (
Hipposideros larvatus
), 201

International Commission, 69–70

International Primatological Society, 286

intravenous drug users:

    AIDS in, 390, 391

    hepatitis B in, 388

intrinsic evolvability, 512–13

intubation, 173–74

Ipoh, Malaysia, 314, 315, 317

Islam, Arif, 334, 335, 339–42

isolation, of viruses, 25, 38

Ivanofsky, Dmitri, 265–66

Ivindo River, 53, 54, 55, 87, 88, 111, 117

Ixodes scapularis,
see
deer (blacklegged) tick

Jaax, Nancy, 101

Jamot, Eugène, 479, 480

Jane Goodall Institute, 468, 472–73

Japanese encephalitis (JE), 314–16, 317, 318

Johannesburg, South Africa, 62

Johnson, Karl, 37, 69–70, 74, 346

    on pathology of Ebola, 93–96

    in search for Ebola reservoir, 70–72, 77

Jolo (boatman), 449, 450

Jones, Kate E., 44

Jones-Engel, Lisa, 277–81, 283–89

Joosten, Astrid, 357–59, 360, 362–63, 364

Journal of Infectious Diseases,
72, 75

Journal of Virology,
194, 464

Junin, 24, 270, 307

Justin, Ekeme, 440

juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, 241

Kabila, Laurent, 418

Kabongo, Jean-Marie M., 410–12, 421

Kadéï River, 434

Kakao people, 435–36

Kanki, Phyllis, 394–98, 416

Kapit, Malaysia, 154

    
P. knowlesi
infections in, 156–59

Kaposi’s sarcoma, 386–87, 389

Karesh, William B. “Billy,” 64–68, 89, 91, 122, 466

Kasai River, 118

Keele, Brandon F., 424–27, 428, 437, 472–73, 475, 476

Kemp, Alan, 352, 354, 364

Kenya, 399

Kermack, William Ogilvy, 141–44, 146, 236, 303, 367, 518

Khan, Rasheda, 378–79

Khulna, Bangladesh, 335, 336, 339

Kibale National Park, Uganda, 467

Kika, Cameroon, 440, 449

Kikwit, DRC, 72–75, 80, 91–92, 93, 113, 117

Kinshasa (Léopoldville), DRC, 389

    emergence of AIDS pandemic in, 428–29, 430–31, 462, 463, 477–78, 481–84

Kinshasa, University of, 410, 417

Kisangani, DRC, 414, 418, 483

Kitaka Cave, 85, 351–55, 358

    mark-recapture tagging of bats at, 355, 365

Knowles, Robert, 149–50

Koch, Robert, 131–32, 234, 263, 265, 517

Koprowski, Hilary, 21, 414–15, 417, 418

Korber, Bette, 409

Korea, 24

Kota language, 90

Kowloon, China, 170, 193

Krief, Sabrina, 139–40

Ksiazek, Tom, 364–65

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 276

Kuching, Malaysia, 153–54, 156–57

Kyasanur Forest virus, 21, 313

Laboratory of Tumor Cell Biology, 391

Lacks, Henrietta, 184

La Crosse virus, 346

LAGA (Last Great Ape Organization), 432

Lam, Sai Kit “Ken,” 315–16, 317, 318, 319

Lancet,
160

Laos, 163

larch budmoths, 496

Lassa virus, 21, 39, 40, 67, 270, 307, 313, 358

LAV (lymphadenopathy virus), 392–93

    
see also
HIV

Laver, William Graeme, 505–6

Laveran, Alphonse, 128

Leakey, Louis, 470

least horseshoe bat (
Rhinolophus pusillus
), 201, 202, 206

Leeuwenhoek, Anton van, 263

Legionaire’s disease, 43–44

Legionella pneumophila,
43–44

Lentivirus,
297, 308

Léopoldville,
see
Kinshasa, DRC

Lepidoptera, outbreaks in, 495–96, 498

    crashes in, 498–503

leprosy, 400–401, 478

Leroy, Eric M., 54, 114–17, 118, 120–22, 370–73, 403

Lesotho, 483

Levy, Jay A., 393

Li, Wendong, 194–95, 202

Libreville, Gabon, 62, 119

Lipkin, Ian, 514–15

Lipu, China, 203–5

Lister, Joseph, 131–32, 265

Litchfield National Park, Australia, 366

Little Mulgrave, Australia, 46, 48

Liu, Weimin, 140–41

Liu Jianlun, 174–75, 206

Lloyd-Smith, J. O., 172

Lobeke, Cameroon, 426

Lobeke National Park, Cameroon, 435, 438

Loeffler, Friedrich, 266

logging, 67, 433–35, 439

London, 1858 cholera outbreak in, 131

Lonsdorf, Elizabeth, 474–75

Los Angeles, Calif., early AIDS cases in, 385–86, 388, 389, 489

Lossi Gorilla Sanctuary, 63, 64, 65, 91, 120, 124

Lubumbashi, DRC, 483

Luby, Stephen, 328–33, 375

Luebo, DRC, 370–73

Lumumba, Patrice, 484

Luzon, Philippines, SARS in, 167

Lymantria dispar
(gypsy moths), 496, 499, 500–501, 520–21

Lyme, Conn., 212, 241

Lyme disease, 21, 23, 238–59, 511

    biogeography of, 256–59

    biological diversity and risk of, 255–56

    “chronic,” 238–39, 259

    and deer population levels, 246–47

    deer ticks as vector for, 212–13, 241–42, 255

    as ecosystem, 247, 251, 253–54

    prehistory of, 239–42

    as vector-borne disease, 238

Lyme disease (
continued
)

    and white-footed mouse population levels, 252, 253–54

Lyme Disease: The Ecology of a Complex System
(Ostfeld), 246, 257

lymphocytes, 488

    depleted levels of, 385, 386–87, 474–75, 477

    
see also
T cells

lyssaviruses, 351

Macacine herpesvirus 1,
see
herpes B

macaques:

    in AIDS research, 274

    bonnet, 149

    herpes B in, 272–79, 313

    at Hindu and Buddhist temples, 24, 276–77

    long-tailed (
Macaca fascicularis
), 77–78, 149, 157, 160, 162, 163, 276, 277–78

    malaria in, 148–53, 156, 157–58, 160

    pig-tailed, 149, 161, 162

    in polio research, 272–74

    precautionary slaughter of, 275–76, 286

    Reston virus in, 8, 77–78, 861

    rhesus (
M. mulatta
), 149, 162, 185, 401, 414

    SFV in, 24, 287–89

    SIV in, 395

    SV40 in, 414

    at Sylhet majars, 280–85

MacArthur, Robert, 302–3

Macau, China, 170

MacDonald, George, 145–48, 172, 303, 518

Machupo virus, 24, 38–39, 69–70, 270, 307, 346

Mackay, Australia, 28, 29–30, 45

Madagascar, 515

mad cow disease, 23–24

Madras, India, 128

Makokou General Hospital, Gabon,
57

Makovetskaya, Nadezhda Alekseevna, 99–100

Malacosoma,
M. californicum
(western tent caterpillar), 493–96

M. disstria
(forest tent caterpillar), 493–96, 520

malaria, 127–28, 237, 381, 478

    
Anopheles
mosquito as vector of, 135–36, 138

    attempted eradication of, 133–34, 145–46, 147, 517–18

    cause of,
see
Plasmodium

    critical community size of, 138

    falciparum (malignant), 136–41, 418

    and invention of agriculture, 137–38, 139

    in nonhuman species, 135

    
P. knowlesi,
149–53, 156–64, 381, 480, 514, 518

    reservoir hosts of, 161–62

    simian, 148–53

    as supposedly nonzoonotic, 135

    as zoonotic disease, 42, 140, 152, 158, 160

malaria prophylaxis, 361–62

Malaya, University of, 315–16, 317