Spillover: Animal Infections and the Next Human Pandemic (75 page)

relapsing fever, 243

replicability, of viruses, 266, 267, 271, 291, 308, 344, 345

reservoir competence, 251–52, 256, 257

reservoir hosts, 23, 36, 38, 43, 191, 313–14, 512, 518

    as asymptomatic, 271

    of ebolaviruses, 68, 69, 70–72, 74, 75, 76, 82, 85, 86, 112, 114, 115–16, 118–19, 121–22, 370

    equilibrium of viruses and, 271–72

    of Hendra, 27, 30–32, 37, 43, 45, 48, 115

    of Machupo, 70

    of rabies, 31

    of SARS, 192–96, 199–202, 206

Reston, Va., 77–78

Reston Primate Quarantine Unit, 77–78

Reston virus, 77–78, 81, 86–87

retroviruses, 270, 512

    characteristics of, 391, 443

    HIV as, 288, 391

rhesus macaque (
Macaca mulatta
), 149, 162, 185, 401, 414

rheumatoid arthritis, 102, 108

rheumatology, 241

Rhinolophus
(horseshoe bats), 194–95, 201

    
R. pusillus
(least horseshoe bat), 201, 202, 206

Rich, Stephen M., 138–39

Rickettsia burnetii,
see
Coxiella burnetii

R. prowazekii,
215

R. psittaci,
216, 237, 238

Rift Valley fever, 21, 230

rinderpest virus, 19

risk, calculation of, 131

Ritter, Dr., 213

River, The: A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS
(Hooper), 415–16

RIVM (National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Netherlands), 225, 226–27

RNA:

    attributes of, 156, 270–71

    in retroviruses, 391, 443

    viral, 41, 119, 270–71, 307–10, 322, 344, 420, 424–25, 504, 512

RNAlater, 424–25, 474

Roberts, William, 265

Rocky Mountain Laboratory, 220–21, 243

Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 243

Rocky Mountain Virology Club, 346–47

rodents, as virus reservoirs, 313

Roest, Hendrik-Jan, 230–33

Rollin, Pierre, 93, 94, 352, 355

Rolling Stone,
415

Rosicrucianism (La Rose Croix), 90

Ross, Campbell, 127

Ross, Ronald, 127–28, 133–35, 144, 145, 153, 236, 303

    “theory of happenings” of, 133–35

rotavirus diarrhea, 381

rotaviruses, 101

roundworms, 24

Rousettus aegyptiacus
(Egyptian fruit bat), 352–53, 355–56, 358, 372

Royal Society, 416–17, 480

rubella (German measles), 294

Russia, Ebola accidents in, 97, 99–100

Russian Ministry of Defense, 99

Rwanda, 67, 414

Sabah, Malaysia, 160

Sabin, Albert B., 21, 273, 274, 414

Salk, Jonas, 21, 274, 414

Salk vaccine, 414

Salvarsan, 150

Sanderson, John Burdon, 265

San Francisco, Calif., early AIDS cases in, 387–88, 393

Sangeh Monkey Forest, 277–78, 286, 288

Sangha River, 42, 428, 429, 438, 439, 445, 447, 450, 458, 477, 479

Sanno (Shinto deity), 277

Santiago, Mario L., 423–24, 427–28, 467, 471, 472

Sarawak, Malaysia, 153–54, 160

SARS, 21, 39, 44, 167–208, 365, 511, 512

    bats as reservoirs of, 194–96, 199–202, 206, 313, 334, 347, 351, 514–15

    geographical dissemination of, 168, 175–76

    lethality of, 167, 168, 291

    as lucky escape, 206–7

    
R
0
of, 206

    search for cause of, 182–85

    superspreaders of, 172–73, 176–77, 206, 519

    symptoms of, 171, 207

    unanswered questions about, 206–8

    WHO and, 168–69, 171–72, 177, 179

    as zoonotic disease, 189–90

SARS-CoV virus, 24, 185–86, 189, 192, 206, 270, 307, 351, 512

    genome of, 268

    search for reservoir hosts of, 192–96, 199–202, 206, 313

    transmissibility of, 291, 374, 519

SARS-like coronavirus, 194–96, 199–200, 206

schizonts, 136

Schountz, Tony, 347–48, 350

Science,
63, 191, 195, 392, 395, 396, 427–28

Science Citation Index,
304

Scrimenti, Rudolph J., 241

scrub typhus, 21

Selvey, Linda, 33–34, 36

Senegal, 397, 399, 402

seroprevalence, 32

sexual mores, AIDS and, 429, 463, 478

Shah Jalal, Hazrat, 282

Sharp, Paul, 465

sheep:

    FMD in, 35–36

    as measles reservoir, 313

sheep ticks, 240

Shelter Island, N.Y., 244

Shenzhen, China, 170, 171, 188, 189

Sherman live traps, 248

Shilts, Randy, 387–88, 486, 489

shingles, 308

Shinto, 277

shrews, deer ticks and, 249, 250, 251, 252

simian foamy virus (SFV), 24, 287–89, 343

simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), 114, 395–97

    in African green monkeys (SIV
agm
), 396–97, 398–99, 401

    genome of, 398–99, 463

    in greater spot-nosed monkeys (SIV
gsn
), 464, 465

    in macaques (SIV
mac
), 401–2

    prevalence rates of, 426

    recombination in, 465–66

    in red-capped mangabeys, 464, 465

    in sooty mangabeys (SIV
sm
), 399–402, 404, 406, 413

simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), in chimpanzees (SIV
cpz
), 401, 404–5, 406, 415, 437, 443

    age of, 465–66

    Gombe study of, 466–77

    as HIV-1 progenitor, 395–96, 423, 424, 425, 426–27, 428, 437, 446, 477

    sexual transmission of, 472

    vertical transmission of, 472

    virulence of, 463–64, 465, 466

Simond, Paul-Louis, 517

Singapore:

    Nipah virus in, 317

    SARS in, 175–77, 179–81, 207

Singapore General Hospital, 177

Singapore Ministry of Health, 177, 179

Singh, Balbir, 153–54, 156–64, 516

Sin Nombre virus, 39

SIR
model of epidemics, 143–44, 303, 367, 368

Slammer (USAMRIID containment suite), 106–10, 426

sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis), 24, 463, 478–81

small bent-winged bat, 194

Small House in the Field Bamboo Rat Raising Farm, 203–5, 206

smallpox, 88, 264, 266, 290, 414

    Bernoulli’s cost-benefit analysis of, 130–31

    eradication of, 21–22, 517–18

Snow, John, 131

sooty mangabey (
Cercocebus atys
), 399–401, 404, 406, 413

sorcery, Ebola as, 87–91, 122

South Africa, 352, 364, 399, 483, 505, 507

South China Morning Post,
189–90

Southeast Asia, 276

    malaria in, 147, 163

Southern Journal of Medicine,
240

South Sudan, Republic of, 69, 86

Spanish influenza pandemic (1918–19), 214, 263, 504

    presymptomatic infectivity of, 207–8

    total fatalities from, 21, 503

spillover:

    definition of, 43

    ecology of, 344–45, 366–69, 515–17

    frequency of, 39–40, 310

    host-virus relationship in, 272, 343

    likelihood of, 367, 369

    opportunity and, 162, 278, 326, 343–45, 375, 378, 429, 431, 445, 484, 488, 516–17

    reverse (anthroponosis), 67

    as unintended result of human activity, 39–42, 45, 161–62, 164, 237, 258, 343, 515–16

    
see also
zoonosis(es);
specific diseases

spirochetes, 150, 213, 240

sporozoites, 136, 138

Spumavirus,
287

squirrels, as virus reservoirs, 313

Sri Lanka (Ceylon):

    
A. leucosphyus
in, 163

    malaria resurgence in, 147

    1934–35 malaria epidemic in, 145, 146, 147

Stanley Pool, 430–31

Stanleyville,
see
Kisangani, DRC

Steere, Allen C., 241, 242, 244

Sterna hirundo
(common tern), 505, 507

Streptococcus pneumoniae,
172

streptomycin, 482

Sudan:

    Ebola outbreaks in, 60, 69, 72, 76, 77, 86, 97

    rabies in, 297

Sudan ebolavirus,
60, 69, 72, 76, 77, 86, 97

    Gulu outbreak of, 60, 81–82, 85, 88–89, 92, 93

    lethality rate of, 76, 81–82

Sufism, 282

sugar date palm (
Phoenix sylvestris
),
329

Sukarno, 152

sulphur-crested cockatoos, 218

Sungai Nipah, Malaysia, 317

superspreaders, 172–73, 176–77, 206, 375–76, 519

Surma River, 279

susceptible populations:

    depletion of, 129, 132, 134, 143, 144

susceptible populations (
continued
)

    increased density of, 236, 478

    threshold density of, 144

SV40 virus, 414

Swanepoel, Bob, 352, 364

Swaziland, 483

swine fever, 226

swine flu, 21, 39, 374

Sylhet, Bangladesh, 279–85

Sylvain (boatman), 440, 449, 450

Sylvilagus
(cottontail rabbits), 299

Symons, Lisa, 15

syphilis, 149, 150, 240, 480, 481–82

syringes, reuse of, AIDS and, 390, 391, 463, 478–82, 489

Taal, Jaap, 357–59, 360

Taï Forest virus, 79–80, 82, 87

Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire, 79

Tandala, DRC, 76–77, 117

Tangail District, Bangladesh, 328–29

Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore, 175–77, 179–81, 207

Tanzania, 424

Taylor, Rick, 360–61

T cells (thymus-dependent lymphocytes), 385–86, 389, 392, 443

Tchuialeu, Moïse, 432, 440

temples, as zoonotic venues, 24

tent caterpillars:

    forest (
Malacosoma disstria
), 493–96, 520

    population cycles in, 498

    western (
M. californicum
), 494

Terio, Karen, 474–76

tetanus, 414

Teuwen, Dirk, 417, 421

Thailand, 163, 519

T-helper cells, 392

“Theory and Classification of Outbreaks, The” (Berryman), 496

“Theory of the Eradication of Malaria” (MacDonald), 146

thresholds, of infectious diseases, 36, 144, 480

thymine, 156, 270, 306

ticks:

    deer,
see
deer (blacklegged) tick

    sheep, 240

    as virus hosts, 313

Time Asia,
187

Tioman virus, 314

Tio people, 460

TMRCA (time to most recent common ancestor), 421

tobacco mosaic disease, 265–66

Toronto, Canada, SARS in, 167, 175, 207

Towner, Jonathan S., 84–85, 352–56, 364–65, 370, 372

toxocariasis, 24

traditional wisdom, infectious disease and, 88–89

transmissibility, 38, 164, 191, 236–37, 308, 507

    airborne, 228–29, 259, 291, 294, 325, 350

    blood-borne, 292–93, 388, 391

    efficiency of, 374–75

    human-to-human, 325, 326, 328,
330, 372–73, 374–77, 388, 507, 510

    oral-fecal, 291–92, 507–8

    sexual, 293–94, 310

    vector-borne, 292, 346

    vertical (mother-to-offspring), 294, 310, 472

    virulence and, 301–2, 305

    
see also
spillover;
specific diseases and pathogens

transmission rate (ß), 374

Treponema pallidum,
150–51

trophozoites, 136

Tryon Island, 505

Trypanosoma brucei,
24, 478

trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), 463, 478–81

tryparsamide, 480

tsetse flies, 24, 478, 481

tuberculosis (TB), 67, 68, 237, 265, 381, 487

    as re-emergent disease, 43

tussock moths, 496

Typhoid Mary, 172

typhus, 215, 381

UCLA Medical Center, 385–86

Uganda:

    AIDS in, 519

    Bundibugyo virus in, 84–87

    Ebola virus in, 85

    ebolavirus panic in, 85–86, 90

    Marburg virus in, 85, 351–65

    rabies in, 296–97

    
Sudan ebolavirus
in, 60, 81–82, 85, 88–89

Uganda Ministry of Health, 84, 85, 89

UNESCO, 484

United States Agency for International Development, 513

Unwin, Ray, 15, 17, 45, 49

uracil, 156, 306, 309

Urbani, Carlo, 168, 169

urine sampling, 424, 467, 471

USAMRIID (US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases), 74, 78, 97, 100, 101, 102–10, 363

    Slammer at, 106–10, 426

Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania), 37

varicella zoster virus, 308

variola virus, 21–22

vectors:

    deer ticks as, 212–13, 241–42, 255

    mosquitoes as, 23, 43, 128–29, 135, 263, 266, 314–15, 346

    rodents as, 346

    transmissibility and, 292–93, 518

Vektor research center, 100

Vibrio cholerae,
131

Victoria, Australia, 298

Vietnam, 163

    SARS in, 162, 163, 207

virions, 268–69, 291, 293, 308, 318, 443, 444, 501

virologists, 25, 40

virosphere, 40, 306, 307–8

virulence, 24, 129, 290–91, 295–302

    and evolution of host-virus relationship, 295–98, 396

    transmissibility and, 301–2, 305

    
see also
specific pathogens

Virunga Volcanoes, 67, 68

Virus
(Montagnier), 391

viruses, 23, 263–310

    antibiotics as ineffective on, 24, 211, 269

    bacteria vs., 211

    bats as reservoirs of, 313–14, 345–51

    capsids of, 268, 269, 270

    challenges faced by, 268

    characteristics of, 263–69

    DNA, 41, 270, 307–10

    ecology of, 344–45, 366–69

    envelope of, 269, 504