The App Generation (25 page)

35.
Davis and James, “Tweens' Conceptions of Privacy Online.”

36.
Alice E. Marwick, Diego Murgia-Diaz, and John G. Palfrey Jr.,
Youth, Privacy, and Reputation: Literature Review,
Berkman Center Research Publication No. 2010-5; Harvard Public Law Working Paper No. 10-29;
http://ssrn.com/abstract=1588163
; Kirsty Young, “Identity Creation and Online Social Networking: An Australian Perspective,”
International Journal of Emerging Technologies and Society
7 (2009): 39–57.

37.
B. Ridout, A. Campbell, and L. Ellis, “Off Your Face(book)?: Alcohol in Online Social Identity Construction and Its Relation to Problem Drinking in University Students,”
Drug and Alcohol Review
31 (2012): 20–26.

38.
Doug Gross, “Snapchat: Sexting Tool, or the Next Instagram?”
CNN,
January 10, 2013,
http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/03/tech/mobile/snapchat/index.html
.

39.
Kashmir Hill, “Snapchat Won't Protect You from Jerks,”
Forbes,
March 18, 2013,
http://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2013/03/18/snapchat-wont-protect-you-from-jerks/
.

40.
Lynn Schofield Clark,
The Parent App: Understanding Families in the Digital Age
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2013); Barbara K. Hofer and Abigail Sullivan Moore,
The iConnected Parent: Staying Close to Your Kids in College (and beyond) while Letting Them Grow Up
(New York: Free Press, 2010); Margaret K. Nelson,
Parenting Out of Control: Anxious Parents in Uncertain Times
(New York: NYU Press, 2010); Katie Davis, “A Life in Bits and Bytes: A Portrait of a College Student and Her Life with Digital Media,”
Teachers College Record
113 (2011): 1960–1982.

41.
Hofer and Moore,
iConnected Parent.

42.
Hofer and Moore,
iConnected Parent.

43.
William Merrin, “MySpace and Legendary Psychasthenia,” Media Studies 2.0, September 14, 2007,
http://mediastudies2point0.blogspot.com/2007/09/myspace-and-legendary-psychasthenia.html
. To explain how people's online presence can weaken their sense of self to the point of full renunciation, media studies scholar William Merrin draws on Roger Callois's work around insect mimicry and psychasthenia. In 1935, Callois coined the word
psychasthenia
to describe a disorder marked by a person's inability to distinguish between oneself and one's surroundings.

According to Callois, a sense of self requires an understanding of how we relate to and are distinct from our environment. Without this ability, a sense of self cannot exist. Merrin makes the connection to cyberspace by observing that a person's online self is disconnected from the point in space he or she occupies offline. Merrin argues that we lose ourselves further as we populate predetermined identity templates on social networking sites like Facebook. Though it may feel as if we're expressing our individuality by displaying a unique combination of pictures, friends, and “likes,” collectively, user profiles do more to signal the environment of Facebook than our individual personalities. Like insects that mimic their environments, we assimilate to these online environments and in so doing renounce ourselves.

44.
Pryor et al., “American Freshman.”

45.
Levine and Dean,
Generation on a Tightrope.

46.
Eli Pariser,
The Filter Bubble: What the Internet Is Hiding from You
(New York: Penguin, 2011); Markus Prior,
Post-Broadcast Democracy: How Media Choice Increases Inequality in Political Involvement and Polarizes Elections
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007); Bill Bishop,
The Big Sort: Why the Clustering of Like-Minded America Is Tearing Us Apart
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2008); Cass Sunstein,
Republic.com
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); Lada Adamic and Natalie Glance, “The Political Blogosphere and the 2004 U.S. Election: Divided They Blog” (Paper presented at the proceedings of WWW-2005, Chiba, Japan, May 2005); J. Kelly, D. Fisher, and M. Smith, “Debate, Division, and Diversity: Political Discourse Networks in USENET Newsgroups” (Paper presented at the Second Conference on Online Deliberation: Design, Research, and Practice [DIAC 05], Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, May 2005).

For counterevidence, see Matthew Gentzkow and Jesse M. Shapiro, “Ideological Segregation Online and Offline,”
Quarterly Journal of Economics
126 (2011): 1799–1839. And for a mix of confirmatory and counterevidence, see Sarita Yardi and danah boyd, “Dynamic Debates: An Analysis of Group Polarization over Time on Twitter,”
Bulletin of Science, Technology and Society
30 (2011): 316–327; Eszter Hargittai, Jason Gallo, and Matthew Kane, “Cross-Ideological Discussions among Conservatives and Liberal Bloggers,”
Public Choice
134 (2008): 67–86; H. Farrell, “The Consequences of the Internet for Politics,”
Annual Review of Political Science
15 (2012): 35–52; and Itai Himelboim, Stephen McCreery, and Marc Smith, “Birds of a Feather Tweet Together: Integrating Network and Content Analyses to Examine Cross-Ideology Exposure on Twitter,”
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication
18 (2013): 40–60.

47.
Clay Shirky,
Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing without Organizations
(New York: Penguin, 2008).

48.
Y. Benkler,
The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006).

49.
Mimi Ito et al.,
Hanging Out, Messing Around, and Geeking Out: Kids Living and Learning with New Media
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009).

CHAPTER
5.
APPS AND INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS

1.
K. Davis, “Friendship 2.0: Adolescents' Experiences of Belonging and Self-Disclosure Online,”
Journal of Adolescence
35 (2012): 1527–1536; Yochai Benkler,
The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006); Mimi Ito et al.,
Hanging Out, Messing Around, and Geeking Out: Kids Living and Learning with New Media
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009).

2.
Mary Madden et al., “Teens and Technology 2013,” Pew Internet and American Life Project, March 13, 2013, available at:
http://www.pewinternet.org/~/media//Files/Reports/2013/PIP_
TeensandTechnology2013.pdf
.

3.
Amanda Lenhart, “Teens, Smartphones, and Texting,” Pew Internet and American Life Project, March 19, 2012,
http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2012/Teens-and-smartphones.aspx
.

4.
Davis, “Friendship 2.0.”

5.
R. Ling, and B. Yttri, “Hyper-Coordination via Mobile Phones in Norway,” in
Perpetual Contact: Mobile Communication, Private Talk, Public Performance,
ed. J. E. Katz and M. Aakhus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 139–169.

6.
Mimi Ito and Daisuke Okabe, “Technosocial Situations: Emergent Structuring of Mobile E-Mail Use,” in
Personal, Portable, Pedestrian: Mobile Phones in Japanese Life,
ed. M. Ito, D. Okabe, and M. Matsuda (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 257–273.

7.
Barbara K. Hofer and Abigail Sullivan Moore
, The iConnected Parent: Staying Close to Your Kids in College (and beyond) while Letting Them Grow Up
(New York: Free Press, 2010); Margaret K. Nelson,
Parenting Out of Control: Anxious Parents in Uncertain Times
(New York: NYU Press, 2010).

8.
danah boyd, “Why Youth Heart Social Network Sites: The Role of Networked Publics in Teenage Social Life,” in
Youth, Identity, and Digital Media,
ed. David Buckingham (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007), 119–142.

9.
Joseph B. Walther, “Computer-Mediated Communication: Impersonal, Interpersonal, and Hyperpersonal Interaction,”
Communication Research
23 (1996): 3–43. Walther's hyperpersonal communication
theory states that specific features of computer-mediated communication, such as audiovisual anonymity and asynchrony, encourage people to self-disclose more than they would through face-to-face communication.

10.
Luigi Bonetti, Marilyn Anne Campbell, and Linda Gilmore, “The Relationship of Loneliness and Social Anxiety with Children's and Adolescents' Online Communication,”
Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking
13 (2010): 279–285; Alexander P. Schouten, Patti M. Valkenburg, and Jochen Peter, “Precursors and Underlying Processes of Adolescents' Online Self-Disclosure: Developing and Testing an ‘Internet-Attribute-Perception' Model,”
Media Psychology
10 (2007): 292–315; Susannah Stern, “Producing Sites, Exploring Identities: Youth Online Authorship,” in Buckingham,
Youth, Identity, and Digital Media,
95–117; Patti M. Valkenburg and Jochen Peter, “Social Consequences of the Internet for Adolescents: A Decade of Research,”
Current Directions in Psychological Science
18 (2009): 1–5; Patti M. Valkenburg and Jochen Peter, “Online Communication among Adolescents: An Integrated Model of Its Attraction, Opportunities, and Risks,”
Journal of Adolescent Health
48 (2011): 121–127; P. M. Valkenburg, S. R. Sumter, and J. Peter, “Gender Differences in Online and Offline Self-Disclosure in Pre-Adolescence and Adolescence,”
British Journal of Developmental Psychology
29 (2011): 253–269.

11.
Miller McPherson, Lynn Smith-Lovin, and Matthew E. Brashears, “Social Isolation in America: Changes in Core Discussion Networks over Two Decades,”
American Sociological Review
71 (2006): 353–375. Though published in a highly respected, peer-reviewed journal, McPherson's findings have not gone without challenge. Another sociologist, Claude Fischer of UC Berkeley, believes that the findings are an artifact of the 2004 survey process, which he argues contained a number of anomalies and inconsistencies. He cautions: “Scholars and general readers alike should draw no inference from the 2004 GSS as to whether Americans' social networks changed substantially between 1985 and 2004; they probably did not.” Though McPherson and his colleagues published a convincing rebuttal, we believe it's still important to acknowledge that their findings haven't convinced everyone.

In addition, a 2009 study conducted by the Pew Internet and American Life Project concluded that Americans may not be quite as socially isolated as the McPherson et al. study suggests, though the study did
confirm that Americans' discussion networks have become smaller and less diverse since 1985: Keith Hampton et al., “Social Isolation and New Technology,” November 4, 2009,
http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2009/18—Social-Isolation-and-New-Technology.aspx
.

In Europe, Leopoldina Fortunati and colleagues found that the percentage of Europeans who regularly visit friends and relatives decreased between 1996 and 2009. Other forms of in-person sociability, such as taking part in sporting activities and going out to restaurants, pubs, or dancing, became less frequent during the same time period (though a greater percentage of Europeans reported taking part in such activities). Interestingly, those with access to the Internet were more likely to report taking part in various forms of in-person sociability. Leopoldina Fortunati, Sakari Taipale, and Federico de Luca, “What Happened to Body-to-Body Sociability?”
Social Science Research
42 (2013): 893–905.

12.
National Opinion Research Center,
The General Social Survey (GSS), 1972–2008
(data file), accessed in 2009,
http://www.norc.org
; R. D. Putman,
Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000); R. V. Robinson, and E. F. Jackson, “Is Trust in Others Declining in America? An Age-Period-Cohort Analysis,”
Social Science Research
30 (2001): 117–145; Katie Davis et al., “I'll Pay Attention When I'm Older: Generational Differences in Trust,” in
Restoring Trust in Organizations and Leaders: Enduring Challenges and Emerging Answers,
ed. Roderick M. Kramer and Todd L. Pittinsky (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 47–67; Katie Davis and Howard Gardner, “Trust: Its Conceptualization by Scholars, Its Status with Young Persons,” in
Political and Civic Leadership: A Reference Handbook,
ed. Richard A. Couto, vol. 2 (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), 602–610.

13.
Sherry Turkle,
Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other
(New York: Basic Books, 2011); Jacqueline Olds and Richard Schwartz,
The Lonely America;
Stephen Marche, “Is Facebook Making Us Lonely?”
Atlantic,
May 2012; David DiSalvo, “Are Social Networks Messing with Your Head?”
Scientific American,
January–February 2010.

14.
R. Pea et al., “Media Use, Face-to-Face Communication, Media Multitasking, and Social Well-Being among 8–12-Year-Old Girls,”
Developmental Psychology
48 (2012): 327–336.

15.
Hui-Tzu Grace Chou and Nicholas Edge, “‘They Are Happier and Having Better Lives than I Am': The Impact of Facebook on Perceptions of Others' Lives,”
Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking
15 (2012): 117–121.

16.
Odelia Kaly, “Why I'm Worried about Social Media,”
Huffington Post,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/odelia-kaly/why-im-worried-about-soci_b_2161554.html
.

17.
Turkle,
Alone Together;
Andrew Reiner, “Only Disconnect,”
Chronicle of Higher Education,
September 24, 2012.