The Enigma of Japanese Power (62 page)

For these different methods, and which corporations were the major financial sources for important politicians, see Hatakeyama Takeshi,
Habatsu no uchimaku
[The Inside Story of Political Cliques], Rippu Shobo, 1976, pp. 104–6.
↩

In an interview in
Asahi Shimbun
, 20 September 1987.
↩

For an account of the origins of the current
habatsu
system, see Masumi,
Gendai seiji
, op. cit. (n. 55), p. 7.
↩

Campbell,
Contemporary Budget
, op. cit. (n. 37), p. 257.
↩

Hatakeyama,
Habatsu
, op. cit. (n. 72), p. 73.
↩

For an account of these different tasks, see Masumi,
Gendai seiji
, op. cit. (n. 55),p. 17.
↩

‘Seikai ni nadarekomu wakate eriito kanryotachi no dasan to kake’ [Calculation and challenge of young élite bureaucrats who rush into the political world],
Shukan Asahi
, 27 June 1986, pp. 23–4. The Ministry of Finance led with 8 of the candidates, followed by MITI with 5, the Agriculture Ministry with 4 and Construction with 3. Nearly half of these candidates were in their late thirties or early forties and had held no rank higher than section chief or assistant section chief in their former ministries. In the past, only former vice-ministers and directors-general, with few exceptions, would seek an LDP candidacy. This relative youthfulness indicated partly a desire to have enough years left to reach top positions at the current promotion rate in the LDP, and partly disappointment with their careers, especially in the Ministry of Finance.
↩

‘Tsuyokatta kanryo OB: jimin hireiku meibojun kettei’,
Asahi Shimbun
, 18 June 1986.
↩

The meeting at which this was decided was held on 4 December 1987.
↩

Tanaka himself could ignore the bureaucrats when it suited him, as when the chiefs of the budget and tax bureaux feebly tried to resist his bloated budgets of 1972 and 1973. (In 1972 Tanaka’s intervention – shortly after he became prime minister – concerned only the supplementary budget.) But he was often highly solicitous of bureaucratic opinion. See Sakakibara Eisuke,
Nihon o enshutsu sum shin-kanryozo
[A Profile of the New Bureaucrats Who Direct Japan], Yamate Shobo, 1977, p. 105.
↩

Fukumoto Kunio,
Kanryo
[Bureaucrats], Kobundo, 1959, pp. 142–3.
↩

Mainichi Shimbun Shakaibu,
Kanryo
[Bureaucrats], Mainichi Shimbunsha, 1980, pp. 250–1.
↩

‘Katadori toben no seifu iin, daijin sasaeru kanryogun’,
Yomiuri Shinbun
, 8 October 1986.
↩

See Inoguchi Takashi and Iwai Tomoaki,
‘Zoku giin’ no kenkyu
[A Study of ‘Tribe Diet Members’], Nihon Keizai Shimbunsha, 1987, p. 11.
↩

Kanryo Kiko Kenkyukai (eds.),
Okurasho zankoku monogatari
[The Inside Story of the Ministry of Finance], Eeru Shuppansha, 1976, pp. 130–1.
↩

Tahara Soichiro,
Nihon no kanryo 1980
[Bureaucrats of Japan 1980], Bungei Shunju, 1979, pp. 16–19.
↩

The journalist was Gebhard Hielscher, Tokyo correspondent for the Sild Deutsche Zeitung.
↩

See Chapter 2.
↩

Nihon Keizai Shimbunsha,
Jiminto Seichokai
, op. cit. (n. 23), p. 19.
↩

Masumi,
Gendai seiji
, op. cit. (n. 55), p. 18.
↩

Uchida Genko, ‘Taikenteki kanryoron’ [A view of the bureaucracy based on personal experience],
Chuo Koron
, May 1970, p. 63.
↩

One of the first Japanese studies on the subject even holds that Tanaka should be seen as the beginning of the present
zoku
system. See Inoguchi and Iwai,
‘Zoku giin’
, op. cit. (n. 85), p. 20.
↩

Membership in a
zoku
also depends on the
habatsu
one has joined. The Tanaka
gundan
is overwhelmingly represented in the largest variety of
zoku
fields with the largest number of
zoku
bosses. It dominates the most popular construction, agriculture and transportation
zoku
. The
habatsu
of Miyazawa, on the other hand, is the least well represented. The
habatsu
of Abe Shintaro is well ensconced in the transportation
zoku
. Nakasone has tried to gain influence in the
zoku
dominated by the Tanaka people.
Kanryoha
members of the LDP naturally gravitate towards the PARC division corresponding to their former ministry, and they are expected to play special mediating roles. They are also expected by their former colleagues to defend their former ministry against unwanted political pressures. Individuals’ strength in elections is directly related to their
zoku
position. Only the very strong can afford to concern themselves with pohcy matters related to defence and education, since these fields are not lucrative and do not bring in votes (though the defence industry has been known to support certain LDP candidates), with the result that LDP members who influence these fields are those who are rather senior, those who have inherited their constituencies from their fathers or those with strong ideological motivations. Belonging to the defence
zoku
is actually considered to be a liability in elections. Other PARC divisions that are relatively unpopular are those of justice, foreign affairs, labour, science and technology, and environment – Inoguchi and Iwai,
‘Zoku giin’
, op. cit. (n. 85), pp. 134–47, 150.
↩

Ezra N. Suleiman,
Elites in French Society
, Princeton University Press, 1978, p. 4.
↩

For an overview of the recent increase in the interpenetration of all realms due to the mobile bureaucrats, see Pierre Bimbaum,
The Heights of Power: An Essay on the Power Elite in France
, University of Chicago Press, 1982, pp. 102–6.
↩

Suleiman,
Elites
, op. cit. (n. 95), chapter 6.
↩

Bimbaum,
Heights
, op. cit. (n. 96), p. 41.
↩

E. N. Suleiman,
Politics, Power, and Bureaucracy in France
, Princeton University Press, 1974, pp. 138–56, 201–32.
↩

See Chapter 11.
↩

John C. Campbell, ‘Policy conflict and its resolution within the governmental system’, in E. S. Krauss, T. P. Rohlen and P. O. Steinhoff (eds.),
Conflict in Japan
, University of Hawaii Press, 1984, p. 316.
↩

Rodney Clark,
The Japanese Company
, Yale University Press, 1979, p. 41.
↩

Sheldon Garon,
The State and Labor in Modern Japan
, University of California Press, 1987, p. 225.
↩

John W. Hall, ‘Rule by status in Tokugawa Japan’,
Journal of Japanese Studies
, Autumn 1974, pp. 44–5.
↩

See Chapter 3.
↩

See Harumi Befu, ‘Corporate emphasis and patterns of descent in the Japanese family’, in R. J. Smith and R. K. Beardsley (eds.),
Japanese Culture
, Aldine, 1962, pp. 34–40.
↩

Most Japanese Buddhist priests are not celibate.
↩

For an extensive account of the relationship between the authorities and the family, see R. P. Dore,
City Life in Japan
, University of California Press, 1958.
↩

Nakane Chie was the first social scientist unambiguously to make this point in her comparisons of the Indian and Japanese social structure, and in her famous study in English, Japanese Society, University of California Press, 1970.
↩

‘Kaisha no chorei de yarukoto’ [What the morning meetings in companies are all about],
Shukan Yomiuri
, 3 June 1984, p. 127. According to one compilation, 60 per cent of large companies have company songs.
↩

See, for instance, Basil Hall Chamberlain,
Things Japanese
, Turtle, 1971 (reprint of 1905 edn); or William Griffith,
The Mikado’s Empire
, Harper & Brothers, 1876.
↩

Chamberlain,
Things Japanese
, op. cit. (n. 12), p. 165.
↩

Ishii Ryosuke,
A History of Political Institutions in Japan
, University of Tokyo Press, 1980, p. 42.
↩

Kozo Yamamura,
Economic Policy in Postwar Japan
, University of California Press, 1967, p. 163.
↩

‘Kyugekina endaka de shitauke ijime’,
Nihon Keizai Shimbun
, 19 May 1986.
↩

Felix Twaalfhoven and Tomohisa Hattori,
The Supporting Role of Small Japanese Enterprises
, Indivers Research, Netherlands, 1982.
↩

For the best account of the recent legal history of female employment in Japan, and an excellent summary of the official view of working women, see Frank K. Upham,
Law and Social Change in Postwar Japan
, Harvard University Press, 1987, pp. 124–65.
↩

Ibid., pp. 150–1.
↩

Nihon Keizai Shimbunsha (eds.),
Jiminto Seichokai
[LDP’s Policy Affairs Research Council], Nihon Keizai Shimbunsha, 1983, p. 164.
↩

Masukomi Kanren Sangyo Rodo Kumiai Kyoto Kaigi (eds.),
Masukomi 1970
, Rodo Jumposha, 1969, p. 136.
↩

The pioneering and, to my knowledge, still the best treatment of this phenomenon is Daniel Boorstin,
The Image
, Atheneum, 1961.
↩

Tahara Soichiro,
Dentsu
, Asahi Shimbunsha, 1984, p. 17.
↩

For a list of the more spectacular instances, see Oshita Fiji, ‘Sogo “joho” shosha Dentsu no tabuu’ [The taboos of Dentsu, a general ‘information’ trading company],
Tsukuru
, December 1977, p. 137; and Tahara,
Dentsu
, op. cit. (n. 23), pp. 40–4.
↩

Honda Yasuharu, ‘Dentsu no himitsu’ [The secret of Dentsu],
Shukan Bunshun
, 28 July 1977, p. 37; and Tahara,
Dentsu
, op. cit. (n. 23), p. 37.
↩

Kitazawa Shun,
Zankoku kokoku gyokai senso
[Cruel Advertising Industry War], Eeru Shuppansha, 1987, p. 26.
↩

Mikami Hiroshi, ‘Genron no jiyu o hitei suru Dentsu’ [Dentsu denies freedom of speech], in Ino Kenji (ed.),
Dentsu kogairon
, Nisshin Hodo, 1971, pp. 107–8.
↩

Ino Kenji, ‘Magarikado ni kita Dentsu teikoku shugi’ [The turning point of Dentsu’s imperialism], ibid., pp. 50 ff.
↩

Masukomi Kanren Sangyo Rodo Kumiai Kyoto Kaigi (eds.),
Masukomi 1971
, Rodo Jumposha, 1971, p. 292; also Ino, ‘Magarikado’, op. cit. (n. 28), p. 39.
↩

The reporter is Sakai Sadao. Cited in Kogai Shuzai-kisha Guruppu (eds.),
Osen hanzai o tsuikyu suru
[Chasing Pollution Crimes], Ijiyakugyo Shimpo, 1971, pp. 242–43. See also Suetsugu Seiji, ‘Dentsu ni yoru masukomi sosa: sono haikei to konnichiteki yakuwari’ [Dentsu’s manoeuvring of mass media: its background and present-day role],
Tsukuru
, November 1973, p. 80.
↩

Ino, ‘Magarikado’, op. cit. (n. 28), p. 59.
↩

Known as the
kaikiri
system.
↩

Domei Tsushinsha, which collaborated with the Army and the government, was created from a merger between Dentsu (a telegraph and news company as well as an advertising agency for the first third of the century) and a news agency run by the press. For more details of Dentsu’s wartime connections, relevant to its post-war success, see Chapter 14.
↩

Fujita Haruo, ‘Dentsu no beeru o hagu’ [Unveiling Dentsu], in Ino,
Dentsu kogairon
, op. cit. (n. 27), p. 133.
↩

Op. cit. (n. 21). For Kyodo’s dependence on the authorities, see also Ino, ‘Magarikado’, op. cit. (n. 28), p. 41.
↩

Oshita, ‘Sogo “joho”’, op. cit. (n. 24), pp. 145–6.
↩

Kitazawa,
Zankoku
, op. cit. (n. 26), p. 46.
↩

Ibid., p. 54.
↩

Ibid., p. 55; and Uji Yoshio, ‘Kokoku gyokai wa “kin no tamago” o mitsukerareru ka’ [Can the advertising industry find the ‘golden egg’?],
Purejidento
, October 1986, p. 202.
↩

Irwin Scheiner, ‘Benevolent lords and honorable peasants: rebellion and peasant consciousness in Tokugawa Japan’, in Tetsuo Najita and Irwin Scheiner (eds.),
Japanese Thought in the Tokugawa Period
, University of Chicago Press, 1978, p. 46.
↩

Richard H. Mitchell,
Censorship in Imperial Japan
, Princeton University Press, 1983, p. 82.
↩

Ibid., p. 16.
↩

A promise some of the intelligentsia had read into the first article of the ‘Charter Oath’, proclaimed in name of the emperor by the new government in 1868. See Matsumoto Sannosuke, ‘The roots of political disillusionment: public and private in Japan’, in J. V. Koschmann (ed.).
Authority and the Individual in Japan
, University of Tokyo Press, 1978.
↩

Sheldon M. Garon, ‘The imperial bureaucracy and labor policy in postwar Japan’,
Journal of Asian Studies
, May 1984, p. 442.
↩

Keishicho-shi Hensan linkai,
Keishicho-shi: Meiji-hen
[History of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Agency: Meiji Period], 1959, pp. 50–1.
↩

D. Eleanor Westney, ‘The emulation of western organisations in Meiji Japan: the case of the Paris prefecture of police and the Keishi-choo’,
Journal of Japanese Studies
, Summer 1982, p. 315.
↩

Ibid., pp. 316–17.
↩

See Chapter 14.
↩

Walter L. Ames,
Police and Community in Japan
, University of California Press, 1981, p. 23.
↩

Lawrence Ward Beer,
Freedom of Expression in Japan
, Kodansha International, 1984, pp. 66–8.
↩

Captain Heinrich Friedrich Wilhelm Hoehn, who served as adviser to the Home Ministry between 1885 and 1891. See Ames,
Police
, op. cit. (n. 10), p. 23.
↩

This information is based on personal interviews with policemen and specialists on the subject in the mid-1970s.
↩

This explanation is that of an informant acquainted with Japanese police practices.
↩

Ames,
Police
, op. cit. (n. 10), p. 135.
↩

David H. Bayley, personal communication. See also his
Forces of Order: Police Behavior in Japan and the United States
, University of California Press, 1976.
↩

Ibid., pp. 134–40.
↩

William Clifford,
Crime Control in Japan
, Lexington Books, 1976.
↩

Of the 75,163 people who received prison sentences in 1986, only 32,015 went to prison.
↩

Some 42 of every 100,000 of the population, compared with 158 in the USA and between 80 and 90 in Britain. Holland has the least, with roughly 20 per 100,000.
↩

The committee’s report was published by Seihosha in 1984: Tokyo 3 Bengoshikai Godo Daiyo-kangoku Chosa linkai (eds.),
Nureginu
[Falsely Accused]. A detailed interpretive account of the committee’s findings and the meeting of the victims can be found in Igarashi Futaba, ‘Koshite “jihaku” saserata: daiyo kangoku to enzai’ [How people have been forced to confess their crimes: substitute prison and false charges],
Sekai
, February 1984, pp. 210–51. For a ten-year-older account, see Aochi Shin, ‘Ayamatta saiban o sabaku’ [Criticism of misjudgements by the courts],
Ushio
, April 1973.
↩

See also Aochi,
Ayamatta
, op. cit. (n. 22), p. 204.
↩

The police may keep a suspect for 48 hours before notifying the prosecutors, who are then given 24 hours to ask a judge for authorisation for 20 days’ detention, before a charge is filed.
↩

Beer,
Freedom
, op. cit. (n. 11), p. 159.
↩

In this context, see Helen Merrell Lynd,
On Shame and the Search for Identity
, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958, pp. 65–6.
↩

Mainichi Shimbun
, 17 February 1985; and
Asahi Shimbun
, 26 February 1985.
↩

For many examples of outrages committed in substitute prisons, see also Goto Shojiro,
Saiban o tatakau
[Fighting the Courts], Mainichi Shimbunsha, 1984, pp. 17–18.
↩

Igarashi, ‘Koshite “jihaku”’, op. cit. (n. 22), p. 221.
↩

Ibid., p. 223.
↩

Nakamura Ryuji, the accused in the ‘Tsuchida cigarette-tin bomb’ case.
↩

See also Tim Pearce, Reuters dispatch, August 1984.
↩

Maesaka Toshiyuki,
Enzai to gohan
[False Charges and Misjudgements], Tabata Shoten, 1982; Hogaku Seminaa zokan (eds.),
Nihon no enzai
[False Charges in Japan], Nihon Hyoronsha, 1983.
↩

Matsumoto Hitoshi,
Koban no ura wa yami
[The Darkness behind the Police Box], Daisan Shokan, 1987, chapter 7; Ise Akifumi, Nippon keisatsu zankoku monogatari [The Inside Story of the Japanese Police], Eeru Shuppansha, 1985, chapter 3.
↩

Matsumoto,
Koban
, op. cit. (n. 34), chapter 14; and Ise,
Nippon keisatsu
, op. cit. (n. 34), pp. 178–9.
↩

Menda Sakae, personal communication.
↩

Ibid.
↩

Ito Hirobumi, ‘Some reminiscences of the grant of the new constitution’, in Okuma Shigenobu (ed.).
Fifty Years of New Japan
, New York, 1909, vol. 1, p. 130, as cited in J. L. Huffman,
The Politics of the Meiji Press
, University of Hawaii Press, 1980, p. 199.
↩

Nitobe Inazo,
Bushido: The Soul of Japan
, Tuttle, 1969 (reprint of 1905 edn), p. 34.
↩

George Etsujiro Uyehara,
The Political Development of Japan
, Constable, 1910, p. 24.
↩

Kishio Satomi,
Discovery of Japanese Idealism
, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1924, pp. 64–5.
↩

Ruth Benedict,
The Chrysanthemum and the Sword,
Houghton Mifflin, 1946, chapter 5.
↩

Dan Fenno Henderson, ‘“Contracts” in Tokugawa villages’,
Journal of Japanese Studies
, Autumn 1974.
↩

In 1984, 1,762 murders were committed in Japan, 18,692 in the USA, 1,613 in the UK and 2,760 in West Germany –
White Paper of the National Police Agency
, 1986.
↩

2,188 robberies were committed in Japan in 1984, 485,000 in the USA, 24,890 in the UK and 28,000 in West Germany – ibid.
↩

Matsumoto,
Koban
, op. cit. (n. 34), pp. 28–43.
↩

Bayley,
Forces
, op. cit. (n. 17), p. 152.
↩

Tamaki Naoya, former judge of the Osaka High Court, personal communication.
↩

Nomura Jiro,
Saiko Saibansho
[The Supreme Court], Kodansha, 1987, pp. 144–5.
↩

Ames,
Police
, op. cit. (n. 10), p. 143.
↩

Ibid., p. 144.
↩

Ibid., p. 163.
↩

Matsumoto,
Koban
, op. cit. (n. 34), pp. 3, 63, 207.
↩

Garon, ‘Imperial bureaucracy’, op. cit. (n. 5), p. 452.
↩

Nomura,
Saiko Saibansho
, op. cit. (n. 49), p. 124.
↩

Ibid., p. 126.
↩

Bayley,
Forces
, op. cit. (n. 17), pp. 73–81.
↩

Ames,
Police
, op. cit. (n. 10), p. 145.
↩

For a detailed account of the experimentation with precedents in social control during the summit, see also Hosaka Kunio,
Shin: Keisatsu kokka Nippon
[Police State Japan], Shakai Hyoronsha, 1986.
↩

Ames,
Police
, op. cit. (n. 10), p. 219. See also Chapter 14.
↩

Ibid., p. 220.
↩

Matsumoto,
Koban
, op. cit. (n. 34), chapter 5.
↩