Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (161 page)

48.
Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 482.

49.
Thomas Ross and David Wise,
The U-2 Affair
(New York, 1962), 98;
Newsweek
, May 16, 1960, p. 28; Michael Beschloss,
Mayday: Eisenhower, Khrushchev, and the U-2 Affair
(New York, 1986).

50.
Oakley,
God's Country
, 388–91.

51.
Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 149.

52.
Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 498–500, 516–17, 538–39.

53.
Siegel,
Troubled Journey
, 133.

54.
George Herring,
America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam
, 1950–1975 (Philadelphia, 1986), 55–63.

55.
Herring, "'People Quite Apart': Americans, South Vietnamese, and the War in Vietnam,"
Diplomatic History
, 14 (Winter 1990), 2.

56.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 71–79.

57.
David Anderson,
Trapped by Success: The Eisenhower Administration and Vietnam
, 1953–1961 (New York, 1991), 199–209.

58.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 43.

59.
William Chafe,
Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom
(New York, 1980), 98–141; Aldon Morris,
The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change
(New York, 1984), 197–215; Howard Zinn,
SNCC: The New Abolitionists
, 2d ed. (Boston, 1965); Weisbrot,
Freedom Bound
, 1–3, 19–42; Godfrey Hodgson,
America in Our Time
(Garden City, N.Y., 1976), 184.

60.
Clayborne Carson,
In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s
(Cambridge, Mass., 1981), 10–18; Branch,
Parting the Waters
, 271–73; Gitlin,
Sixties
, 81.

61.
Weisbrot,
Freedom Bound
, 19.

62.
Morris,
Origins of the Civil Rights Movement
, 215–26; Branch,
Parting the Waters
, 272–93; Carson,
In Struggle
, 19–30; Manning Marable,
Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America
, 1945–1980 (Jackson, 1991), 40–61. In the 1980s and 1990s Barry became a highly controversial mayor of Washington, D.C.

63.
William Chafe,
Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II
(New York, 1991), 303.

64.
Thomas Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940–1964,"
Journal of American History
, 82 (Sept. 1995), 551–78.

65.
Chafe,
Civilities
, 136; Hodgson,
America in Our Time
, 184.

66.
Weisbrot,
Freedom Bound
, 38.

67.
Ibid., 31–33.

68.
Major sources on Nixon in these years are Stephen Ambrose,
Nixon: The Education of a Politician
, 1913–1962 (New York, 1987); and Roger Morris,
Richard Milhous Nixon: The Rise of an American Politician
(New York, 1990). A more favorable assessment of Nixon is Jonathan Aitken,
Nixon: A Life
(Washington, 1994).

69.
Blum,
Years of Discord
, 15.

70.
Morris,
RMN
, 129.

71.
Leuchtenburg,
Troubled Feast
, 115.

72.
See Herbert Parmet,
Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy
(New York, 1980), 72–78, 88–94, 100–103, 190–92, 307–10, 330–33, for solid accounts of controversial aspects of JFK's pre-presidential career, including his health and personal life.

73.
Theodore Roosevelt was the youngest President, but he was older than Kennedy when he first became a presidential candidate in 1904.

74.
Herbert Parmet,
JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy
(New York, 1983), 3–60; David Burner,
John F. Kennedy and a New Generation
(Boston, 1988), 38–56; James Giglio,
The Presidency of John F. Kennedy
(Lawrence, 1991), 1–22; Theodore White,
The Making of the President
, 1960 (New York, 1961), 150–79.

75.
Thomas Reeves, A
Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy
(New York, 1991), 153–67; Burner,
JFK
, 48; White,
Making
. . . 1960, 78–114.

76.
See Doris Kearns Goodwin,
The Fitzgeralds and the Kennedys
(New York, 1987). Highly critical accounts include Nigel Hamilton,
J.F.K.: Reckless Youth
(New York, 1992); and Richard Whalen,
The Founding Father: The Story of Joseph P. Kennedy
(New York, 1964).

77.
Parmet,
Jack
, 242–87; James MacGregor Burns,
John F. Kennedy: A Political Profile
(New York, 1960), 132–52, 183–98.

78.
Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., A
Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House
(New York, 1965), 65. Also Reeves,
Question of Character
, 195; Oakley,
God's Country
, 416.

79.
Kathleen Hall Jamieson,
Packaging the Presidency: A History of Presidential Campaign Advertising
(New York, 1992), 122–68.

80.
Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 26–27.

81.
Senator Harry Byrd of Virginia received fifteen electoral votes, including all eight from Mississippi, six from Alabama, and one from Oklahoma.

82.
Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 524; Robert Ferrell, ed.,
The Eisenhower Diaries
(New York, 1981), 242.

83.
Newsweek
, Oct. 10, 1960, p. 23; White,
Making
. . . 1960, 279–95; Edwin Diamond and Stephen Bates,
The Spot: The Rise of Political Advertising on Television
(Cambridge, Mass., 1992), 90–95.

84.
Newsweek
, Oct. 10, 1960, p. 26; White,
Making
. . . 1960, 331.

85.
Haynes Johnson, "Why Camelot Lives: JFK's Image and the Kennedys' Troubles,"
Washington Post
, Aug. 18, 1991.

86.
Carl Brauer, "John F. Kennedy: The Endurance of Inspirational Leadership," in Fred Greenstein, ed.,
Leadership in the Modern Presidency
(Cambridge, Mass., 1988), 108–33.

87.
Doris Kearns,
Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream
(New York, 1976), 290; Conkin,
Big Daddy
, 151–56.

88.
Branch,
Parting the Waters
, 340; Oakley,
God's Country
, 417.

89.
Richard Polenberg,
One Nation Divisible: Class, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States Since
1938 (New York, 1980), 167–68, concludes that JFK won 80 percent of the Catholic vote and only 38 percent of the considerably larger Protestant vote, but that Catholic votes in major northern states greatly helped him.

90.
Lawson,
Black Ballots
, 256.

91.
This is speculation. Blacks had voted heavily for Democratic presidential candidates since 1936 and probably returned in 1960 once Eisenhower, very popular personally, no longer headed the GOP ticket. Blacks also tended to favor liberal social policies associated with the Democratic party.

92.
Lawson,
Black Ballots
, 255–58.

93.
Reeves,
Question of Character
, 215.

1.
Marty Jezer,
The Dark Ages: Life in the United States
, 1945–1960 (Boston, 1982), 3; Arlene Skolnick,
Embattled Paradise: The American Family in an Age of Uncertainty
(New York, 1991), 89–99; William Braden,
Age of Aquarius: Technology and the Cultural Revolution
(Chicago, 1970), 6.

2.
Daniel Bell,
The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism
(New York, 1976), 81; Wills, cited in Skolnick,
Embattled Paradise
, 78; Braden,
Age of Aquarius
, 6.

3.
Morris Dickstein,
Gates of Eden: American Culture in the Sixties
(New York, 1977), 250.

4.
The year 1962 also witnessed publication of
Fail-Safe
by Eugene Burdick and Harvey Wheeler. A popular novel, it centered on a nuclear disaster caused by mechanical failure. It was produced as a movie in 1964.

5.
Kirkpatrick Sale,
SDS
(New York, 1973); James Miller,
"Democracy Is in the Streets"; From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago
(New York, 1987).

6.
Mark Day,
Cesar Chdvez and the Farm Workers
(New York, 1971); Juan Gonzales,
Mexican and Mexican-American Farm Workers: The California Agricultural Industry
(New York, 1985).

7.
Engel
v.
Vitale
, 370 U.S. 421 (1962). The non-denominational prayer read, "Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessing upon us, our parents, our teachers and our country." Prior to the decision, schools had had the option of using the prayer or not. Students who did not wish to recite it could leave the room. See
Newsweek
, July 9, 1962, pp. 21–22, 43–45, for vocal public reaction.

8.
Jonathan Rieder,
Canarsie: The Jews and Italians of Brooklyn Against Liberalism
(Cambridge, Mass., 1985), 134–36; James David Hunter,
Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America
(New York, 1991), 67–106.

9.
Maurice Immerman and Michael Kazin, "The Failure and Success of the New Radicalism," in Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, eds.,
The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order
, 1930–1980 (Princeton, 1989), 212–42; George Lipsitz, "Who'll Stop the Rain? Youth Culture, Rock 'n' Roll, and Social Crises," in David Farber, ed.,
The Sixties: From Memory to History
(Chapel Hill, 1994), 206–34.

10.
Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service
(Washington, 1964).

11.
As noted earlier, Americans cut back smoking only temporarily; by 1966 per adult consumption of cigarettes had risen to pre-report levels. See James Patterson,
The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modern American Culture
(Cambridge, Mass., 1987), 201–30.

12.
W. J. Rorabaugh,
Berkeley at War: The 1960s
(New York, 1989); Seymour Martin Lipset,
Rebellion in the University
(Chicago, 1971); Kenneth Keniston,
Youth and Dissent: The Rise of a New Opposition
(New York, 1971).