Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (159 page)

10.
Abraham Hoffman,
Unwanted Mexicans in the Great Depression
(Tucson, 1974).

11.
Reimers,
Still the Golden Door
, 37–60.

12.
Ueda,
Asian America
, 32–34.

13.
See
chapter 1
.

14.
Stanley Lieberson, A
Piece of the Pie: Blacks and White Immigrants Since 1880
(Berkeley, 1980), esp. 363–93.

15.
"Amos 'n' Andy" remained on radio, however, until 1960. Melvin Ely,
The Adventures of Amos 'n Andy: A Social History of an American Phenomenon
(New York, 1991).

16.
Robert Zangrando,
The NAACP Crusade Against Lynching
, 1909–1950 (Philadelphia, 1980). Lynchings of Negroes had averaged 121 a year at their peak between 1890 and 1895. A total of eleven Negroes were reported as lynched in the 1950s. There were three more reported between 1960 and 1964 and none for the remainder of the 1960s.

17.
Robert Harris, Jr.,
Teaching African-American History
(Washington, 1992), 51–64; Steven Lawson,
Black Ballots: Voting Rights in the South
, 1944–1969 (New York, 1976), 133–39.

18.
These customs had long histories, as described in Edward Ayers,
The Promise of the New South
(New York, 1993), 132. See also John Howard Griffin,
Black Like Me
(Boston, 1960), for the feelings of a white man who blackened his face and passed for black in the 1950s. The spelling by white-run newspapers of "negro," with a lower-case
n
, was another effort to demean black people.

19.
Werner Sollors, "Of Mules and Mares in a Land of Difference; or, Quadrupeds All?"
American Quarterly
, 42 (June 1990), 167–90.

20.
Robert Zieger,
American Workers, American Unions, 1920–1985
(Baltimore, 1986), 174–77; Herbert Hill, "Black Workers, Organized Labor, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act: Legislative History and Litigation Record," in Hill and James Jones, Jr., eds.,
Race in America: The Struggle for Equality
(Madison, 1993), 263–341; Reynolds Farley and Walter Allen,
The Color Line and the Quality of Life in America
(New York, 1987); and William Harris,
The Harder We Run: Black Workers Since the Civil War
(New York, 1982), 123–89.

21.
Nora Sayre,
Running Time: Films of the Cold War
(New York, 1982), 180–82.

22.
In 1990 the Birmingham, Alabama, country club that was host for the PGA championship still excluded blacks from membership.

23.
Richard Davies,
America's Obsession: Sports and Society Since
1945 (Ft. Worth, 1994), 35–61; Randy Roberts and James Olson,
Winning Is the Only Thing: Sports in America Since
1945 (Baltimore, 1989), 30–45.

24.
Arnold Hirsch,
Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago
, 1940–1960 (New York, 1983), 242–74; Nicholas Lemann,
The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America
(New York, 1991), esp. 59–107, 223–305; Thomas Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940–1964,"
Journal of American History
, 82 (Sept. 1995), 551–78.

25.
Diane Ravitch,
The Troubled Crusade: American Education
, 1945–1980 (New York, 1983), 152.

26.
Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish of New York City
(Cambridge, Mass., 1963), 53.

27.
See
chapter 1
.

28.
Harvard Sitkoff,
The Struggle for Black Equality
, 1954–1992 (New York, 1993), 3–18.

29.
Mark Tushnet,
Making Civil Rights Law: Thurgood Marshall and the Supreme Court
, 1936–1961 (New York, 1994); Nicholas Lemann, "The Lawyer as Hero,"
New Republic
, March 13, 1993, pp. 32–37.

30.
Genna Rae McNeil, "Charles Hamilton Houston: Social Engineer for Civil Rights," in John Hope Franklin and August Meier, eds.,
Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century
(Urbana, 1982), 221–40; Richard Kluger,
Simple Justice: The History of "Brown
v.
Board of Education" and Black America's Struggle for Equality
(New York, 1976), 105–94.

31.
Ravitch,
Troubled Crusade
, 121.

32.
These decisions, respectively, were
Sweatt v. Painter
(339 U.S. 629 [1950]) and
McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education
(339 U.S. 637 [1950]).

33.
Marshall and others, while undertaking a daunting task, thought that they would have a better chance of prevailing in public school cases, where they hoped that judges would apply Fourteenth Amendment language preventing
states
from denying people equal rights without "due process," than they would in trying to challenge
private
discrimination, as practiced by employers, restaurants, lunch counters, hotels, and other institutions. The struggle against racism required a complicated progression of legal and political battles.

34.
Ravitch,
Troubled Crusade
, 121.

35.
Joe Klein, "The Legacy of Summerton:
Brown
v.
Board of Education
40 Years Later,"
Newsweek
, May 16, 1994, pp. 26–30.

36.
At the Supreme Court level it was 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

37.
Kluger,
Simple Justice
, 656.

38.
Dwight Eisenhower,
Mandate for Change
(Garden City, N.Y., 1963), 284–87; Kluger,
Simple Justice
, 657–75.

39.
Anthony Lewis,
Gideon's Trumpet
(New York, 1964); James Weaver,
Warren: The Man, the Court, the Era
(Boston, 1967); Kluger,
Simple Justice
, 678–99.

40.
Kluger,
Simple Justice
, 700–710.

41.
William Chafe,
The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II
(New York, 1991), 153; Robert Norrell,
Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee
(New York, 1985), 72–74, 86–89; Chafe,
Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina and the Black Struggle for Freedom
(New York, 1980), 98–141; Kluger,
Simple Justice
, 724–29.

42.
Julius Chambers,
"Brown
v.
Board of Education,"
in Hill and Jones, eds.,
Race in America
, 184–94; James Liebman, "Three Strategies for Implementing
Brown
Anew," in ibid., 112–66.

43.
Sollors, "Of Mules and Mares," 171.

44.
Ravitch,
Troubled Crusade
, 124–28; Richard Polenberg,
One Nation Divisible: Class, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States Since
1938 (New York, 1980), 155.

45.
There is a vast literature on this subject. See Christopher Jencks,
Inequality: A Reassessment of the Effect of Family and Schooling in America
(New York, 1972); and Jencks and Susan Mayer,
The Social Consequences of Growing Up in a Poor Neighborhood: A Review
(Evanston, 1989), 56–65.

46.
Michael Klarman, "How
Brown
Changed Race Relations: The Backlash Thesis,"
Journal of American History
, 81 (June 1994), 81–118.

47.
Richard Fried,
Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
(New York, 1990), 176.

48.
Newsweek
, May 24, 1954, p. 25.

49.
Stephen Ambrose,
Eisenhower: Soldier and President
(New York, 1990), 335, 406–19; Herbert Parmet,
Eisenhower and the American Crusades
(New York, 1972), 438–40; Charles Alexander,
Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era
, 1952–1961 (Bloomington, Ind., 1975), 117–18; Robert Burk,
The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights
(Knoxville, 1984).

50.
Ravitch,
Troubled Crusade
, 135.

51.
Robert Griffith, "Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Corporate Commonwealth,"
American Historical Review
, 87 (Feb. 1982), 116.

52.
Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 367–68.

53.
Emmet John Hughes,
The Ordeal of Power: A Political Memoir of the Eisenhower Years
(New York, 1963), 201.

54.
349 U.S. 294 (1955); Kluger,
Simple Justice
, 744–77.

55.
Robert Weisbrot,
Freedom Bound: A History of the Civil Rights Movement
(New York, 1990), 94; Halberstam,
The Fifties
(New York, 1993), 430–31.

56.
Weisbrot,
Freedom Bound
, 93.

57.
Time
, Oct. 3, 1955, p. 19; I. F. Stone,
The Haunted Fifties
, 1953–1963 (Boston, 1963), 107–9; Stephen Whitfield, A
Death in the Delta: The Story of Emmett Till
(Baltimore, 1988); John Dittmer,
Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi
(Urbana, 1994), 54–58. Bryant and Milam later admitted their guilt, in return for cash.

58.
Numan Bartley,
The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South During the 1950s
(Baton Rouge, 1969).

59.
J. Ronald Oakley,
God's Country: America in the Fifties
(New York, 1956), 335.

60.
Dittmer,
Local People
, 45–54; Chafe,
Civilities and Civil Rights;
Neil McMillen,
The Citizens' Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954–1964
(Urbana, 1971), 358.

61.
Ravitch,
Troubled Crusade
, 133–34.

62.
David Goldfield,
Black, White, and Southern: Race Relations and Southern Culture
, 1940
to the Present
(Baton Rouge, 1990), 76–87.

63.
Jack Greenberg,
Crusaders in the Courts: How a Dedicated Band of Lawyers Fought for the Civil Rights Revolution
(New York, 1994); J. Harvie Wilkinson,
From "Brown" to "Bakke": The Supreme Court and School Integration
, 1954–1978 (New York, 1978).

64.
Ravitch,
Troubled Crusade
, 138, 162; John Blum,
Liberty, Justice, Order. Essays on Past Politics
(New York, 1993), 311–12.

65.
Klein, "Legacy of Summerton."

66.
"Segregation Persists: 40 Years After Brown,"
New York Times
, May 17, 1994.

67.
Chambers,
"Brown"; Washington Post
, April 11, 1992.