Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (164 page)

4.
Godfrey Hodgson,
America in Our Time
(Garden City, N.Y., 1976), 8;
Newsweek
, Jan. 23, 1961.

5.
Giglio,
Presidency of JFK
, 74–78.

6.
Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 60–61; Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 206–8.

7.
Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 203.

8.
Paul Samuelson, a well-known MIT economist, was chief author of this report. Nitze became Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs in the Kennedy administration. Ibid., 203–4.

9.
Charles Morris, A
Time of Passion: America
, 1960–1980 (New York, 1984), 27–29.

10.
Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 218.

11.
Richard Walton,
Cold War and Counterrevolution: The Foreign Policy of John F. Kennedy
(New York, 1972), 176.

12.
Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 702.

13.
Ibid., 356. For Rusk, see Thomas Schoenbaum,
Waging Peace and War: Dean Rusk in the Truman, Kennedy, and Johnson Years
(New York, 1988); and Warren Cohen,
Dean Rusk
(New York, 1980).

14.
Paterson,
Kennedy's Quest
, 19.

15.
Walter MacDougall, . . .
The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age
(New York, 1985); William O'Neill,
Coming Apart: An Informal History of the 1960s
(Chicago, 1971), 59.

16.
Paterson,
Kennedy's Quest
, 15.

17.
Thomas Paterson, "Fixation with Cuba: The Bay of Pigs, Missile Crisis, and Covert War," in Paterson, ed.,
Kennedy's Quest
, 123–55. For other accounts see Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 29–30, 100–108; Giglio,
Presidency of JFK
, 48–63; and Thomas Reeves, A
Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy
(New York, 1991), 256–76.

18.
John Blum,
Years of Discord: American Politics and Society, 1961–1974
(New York, 1991), 39. The OAS had been formed, under United States auspices, in 1948 and was supposed to provide for consultation among the nations of the Western Hemisphere.

19.
Paterson, "Fixation," 130–34.

20.
Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 137–39; Reeves,
Question of Character
, 256–59; Ambrose,
Rise to Globalism
, 184–85.

21.
Reeves,
Question of Character
, 262–75.

22.
Ibid., 269, 273; Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 144–46.

23.
Paterson, "Fixation"; Trumbull Higgins,
The Perfect Failure: Kennedy, Eisenhower, and the CIA at the Bay of Pigs
(New York, 1987); John Ranelegh,
The Agency: The Rise and Decline of the CIA
(New York, 1986), 381–82.

24.
Alan Wolfe,
America Impasse: The Rise and Fall of the Politics of Growth
(New York, 1981), 187–91.

25.
Reeves,
Question of Character
, 283.

26.
Blum,
Years of Discord
, 45–47; Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 350–52; Reeves,
Question of Character
, 302–9.

27.
Reeves,
Question of Character
, 284. In 1963 Kennedy instructed the CIA to unseat Dr. Cheddi Jagan, the leftist head of British Guinea.

28.
Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 5–6, 375–76.

29.
Barton Bernstein, "Reconsidering Khrushchev's Gambit: Defending the Soviet Union and Cuba,"
Diplomatic History
, 14 (Spring 1990), 231–39.

30.
Among the many accounts of the crisis that followed are Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, esp. 525–44; Giglio,
Presidency of JFK
, 189–216; Reeves,
Question of Character
, 364–86; Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.,
Robert F. Kennedy and His Times
(Boston, 1978), 499–532; Robert Kennedy (ed. by Theodore Sorensen),
Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Missile Crisis
(New York, 1969); Graham Allison,
Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis
(Boston, 1971); Dino Brugioni,
Eyeball to Eyeball: The Inside Story of the Missile Crisis
(New York, 1991); and Ambrose,
Rise to Globalism
, 192–99.

31.
Washington Post
, Jan. 14, 1992; Robert McNamara, "One Minute to Doomsday,"
New York Times
, Oct. 14, 1992.

32.
Reeves,
Question of Character
, 376–80.

33.
Quotes from tapes released July 27, 1994, cited in
Boston Globe
, July 28, 1994. For the reference to Tojo, see Ambrose, Rise
to Globalism
, 194.

34.
The United States in fact imposed a blockade but used the word "quarantine." According to international law, a blockade was an act of war.

35.
Reeves,
Question of Character
, 376–86.

36.
Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 525–36.

37.
Ibid., 542–44, 549.

38.
Ibid., 543–44

39.
Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 216.

40.
Ibid., 213.

41.
Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 568.

42.
Paterson, ed.,
Kennedy's Quest
, 140–41.

43.
William Chafe,
The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II
(New York, 1991), 204.

44.
Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., A
Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House
(Boston, 1965), 841; O'Neill,
Coming Apart
, 71.

45.
Bernstein, "Reconsidering Krushchev's Gambit"; Paterson, "Fixation."

46.
Richard Reeves,
President Kennedy: Profile of Power
(New York, 1993), 513–14.

47.
Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 564–68.

48.
New
York Times
, Jan. 7, 1991.

49.
Raymond Garthoff,
Detente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan
(Washington, 1985), 79–81.

50.
For general treatments see Lawrence Bassett and Stephen Pelz, "The Failed Search for Victory: Vietnam and the Politics of War," in Paterson, ed.,
Kennedy's Quest
, 223–52; George Herring,
America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam
, 1950–1975 (Philadelphia, 1986), 73–106; John Newman,
Deception, Intrigue, and the Struggle for Power
(New York, 1992); Marilyn Young,
The Vietnam Wars
, 1945–1990 (New York, 1991), 78–83, 96–97; Guenter Lewy,
America in Vietnam
(New York, 1978), 18–22; Stanley Karnow,
Vietnam: A History
(New York, 1983), 248–53; Giglio,
Presidency of JFK
, 239–54; Burner,
JFK and a New Generation
, 95–113; and Ambrose,
Rise to Globalism
, 201–10.

51.
Fred Siegel,
Troubled Journey: From Pearl Harbor to Ronald Reagan
(New York, 1984), 140; Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 214–17, 243–45.

52.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 73–78.

53.
Ambrose,
Rise to Globalism
, 207–8.

54.
Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 338.

55.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 82–85.

56.
Bassett and Pelz, "Failed Search"; Herring,
America's Longest War
, 85.

57.
Bassett and Pelz, "Failed Search," 235.

58.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 85–90; Neil Sheehan, A
Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam
(New York, 1988).

59.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 88–90.

60.
Ibid., 90.

61.
June 11 in the United States was one of the most frantic days of Kennedy's presidency. It was also the day that Governor Wallace tried to stop two black

62.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 95–106; Bassett and Pelz, "Failed Search," 243–45 students from being admitted to the University of Alabama, whereupon Kennedy went on television to announce his support of a civil rights bill. Medgar Evers was killed a few hours later. See
chapter 16
.

63.
Blum,
Years of Discord
, 128–32; Schlesinger,
RFK and His Times
, 997.

64.
See comments by Schlesinger, Rostow, Kennedy adviser Roger Hilsman, and others in the
New York Times
, Jan. 20, Feb. 15, March 23 and 29, 1992.

65.
Paterson,
Kennedy's Quest
, 10.

66.
O'Neill,
Coming Apart
, 90; Beschloss,
Crisis Years
, 670–71; Schlesinger,
RFK and His Times
, 1020–25.

67.
Reeves,
President Kennedy
, 661–62;
Newsweek
, Dec. 2, 1963, pp. 20–26.

68.
Known to acquaintances until then as Lee Oswald. See Max Holland, "After Thirty Years: Making Sense of the Assassination,"
Reviews in American History
, 22 (June 1994), 191–209.

69.
See Gerald Posner,
Case Closed: Lee Harvey Oswald and the Assassination of JFK
(New York, 1993); Melinda Beck, "The Mind of the Assassin,"
Newsweek
, Nov. 22, 1993, pp. 71–72; and "Who Shot JFK?"
Newsweek
, Sept.6, 1993, pp. 14–17.

70.
Holland, "After Thirty Years."

71.
See Giglio,
Presidency of JFK
, 277–87, for a summation of some of these theories. Also "28 Years After Kennedy's Assassination, Conspiracy Theories Refuse to Die,"
New York Times
, Jan. 5, 1992; "JFK Conspiracy: Myth vs. the Facts,"
Washington Post
, Feb. 28, 1992; and "The Conspiracy Theories,"
Newsweek
, Nov. 22, 1993, p. 99. A film produced in 1992 by Oliver Stone,
JFK
, brought several of these theories to mass audiences.