Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (158 page)

38.
Indiana University, however, continued to support Kinsey. The Institute for Sex Research there remained a center for such studies.

39.
For Mattachine, see John D'Emilio,
Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States
, 1940–1970 (Chicago, 1983), 58–86.

40.
"Life Before Stonewall,"
Newsweek
, July 4, 1994, pp. 78–79.

41.
The next major survey of American sexual behavior did not appear until 1994: Edward Laumann et al.,
The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States
(Chicago, 1994). It, too, relied mainly on interviews and provoked debate.

42.
Oakley,
God's Country
, 306–7; Halberstam, "Discovering Sex."

43.
Burnham,
Bad Habits
, 194–96. A provocative feminist critique emphasizing that
Playboy
especially appealed to young men seeking to be free and irresponsible is Barbara Ehrenreich, "Playboy Joins the Battle of the Sexes," in Ehrenreich,
The Hearts of Men: American Dreams and the Flight from Commitment
(New York, 1983), 42–51.

44.
Oakley,
God's Country
, 307–8.

45.
Code as described in
New York Times
, Feb.
4
, 1994. See also Gilbert,
Cycle of Outrage
, 169, 189.

46.
Oakley,
God's Country
, 309.

47.
Sayre,
Running Time
, 161.

48.
Halberstam, "Discovering Sex," 48. See also Burnham,
Bad Habits
, 191; and O'Neill,
American High
, 48–50.

49.
Randall Collins and Scott Cottrane,
Sociology of Marriage and the Family
(Chicago, 1991), 158.

50.
Carl Degler,
At Odds: Women and the Family in America from the Revolution to the Present
(New York, 1980), 456–57.

51.
Daniel Yankelovich,
The New Morality
(New York, 1974), 96–97.

52.
A perceptive evaluation of Friedan's book—and other aspects of the 1950s—is Joanne Meyerowitz, "Beyond the Feminine Mystique: A Reassessment of Postwar Mass Culture, 1946–1958,"
Journal of American History
, 79 (March 1993), 1455–82. An overview of women in the 1950s is Eugenia Kaledin,
Mothers and More: American Women in the 1950s
(Boston, 1984).

53.
Davidson and Lytle, "From Rosie to Lucy," 312.

54.
Skolnick,
Embattled Paradise
, 71.

55.
Jezer,
Dark Ages
, 247.

56.
Halberstam, "Discovering Sex," 56, from
Better Homes and Gardens
.

57.
Written by Joseph Mankiewicz. It had an all-star cast including Gary Merrill, George Sanders, Celeste Holm, and (in the first role to gain her attention) Marilyn Monroe.

58.
Paul Goodman,
Growing Up Absurd
(New York, 1960), 13; Pells,
Liberal Mind
,
214
.

59.
Oakley,
God's Country
, 407; Jezer,
Dark Ages
, 223.

60.
For a different argument that tends to blame Cold War culture for promoting domesticity, see Elaine Tyler May, "Cold War—Warm Hearth: Politics and the Family in Postwar America," in Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, eds.,
The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order
, 1930–1980 Princeton, 1989), 153–81; and May,
Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era
(New York, 1988).

61.
Cynthia Harrison,
On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women's Issues
, 1945–1958 (Berkeley, 1988), 37, 59–61.

62.
William Chafe,
The Paradox of Change: American Women in the 20th Century
(New York, 1991), 179–81; Leuchtenburg,
Troubled Feast
, 74; Degler,
At Odds
, 440.

63.
Percentages of adult men who were in the labor force ranged in these years from 84 to 87 percent.

64.
Dorothy Cobble,
Dishing It Out: Waitresses and Their Unions in the 20th Century
(Urbana, 1991); Nancy Gabin,
Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Automobile Workers
, 1935–1975 (Ithaca, 1990).

65.
Degler,
At Odds
, 424–25.

66.
Richard Easterlin,
Birth and Fortune: The Impact of Numbers on Personal Welfare
(New York, 1980), 66–69, 170; Collins and Cottrane,
Sociology
, 178. A total of 30 percent of women with children aged 6 to 17 worked in 1950; the percentage in 1960 was 40 percent. Percentages of women with children under 6 who worked increased in this same period from 13 percent to 20 percent. In 1960, 50 percent of women aged 45 to 54 were in the labor force, compared to 36 percent of those aged 25 to 34, 46 percent of those aged 20 to 24, and 37 percent of those aged 55 to 64.

67.
Leach,
Land of Desire;
and Chafe,
Paradox
, 188, on trends among middle-class married women.

68.
O'Neill,
American High
, 42–44.

69.
Skolnick,
Embattled Paradise
, 207; Gilbert,
Cycle of Outrage
, 5–8; Chauncey, "Postwar Sex Crime Panic."

70.
Gilbert,
Cycle of Outrage
, 64, 93–104.

71.
Biskind,
Seeing Is Believing
, 202–6; Sayre,
Running Time
, 110–12.

72.
Oakley,
God's Country
, 272.

73.
The white version was the bigger seller.

74.
Carl Belz,
The Story of Rock
(New York, 1969); Ed Ward et al.,
Rock of Ages: The Rolling Stone History of Rock and Roll
(New York, 1986); George Lipsitz, '"Ain't Nobody Here But Us Chickens': The Class Origins of Rock and Roll," in Lipsitz,
Class and Culture
, 195–225. Another black singing star of the era, Little Richard, reached number two on the rhythm-and-blues charts in 1955 with "Tutti Frutti." See Tony Scherman, "Little Richard's Big Noise,"
American Heritage
, Feb./March 1995, pp. 54–56.

75.
Todd Gitlin,
The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage
(New York, 1987), 37–41.

76.
Peter Guralnick,
Last Train to Memphis: The Rise of Elvis Presley
(Boston, 1994), 5–6, 60–65; Jezer,
Dark Ages
, 280; Halberstam,
Fifties
, 471.

77.
New York Times
, June 7, 1993; Daniel Boorstin,
The Image in America: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America
(New York, 1961), 156–61.

78.
Jezer,
Dark Ages
, 279; Gilbert,
Cycle of Outrage
, 18.

79.
For discussion of the beats, see
chapter 14
.

1.
As in earlier chapters, I sometimes use here words—"Negro," "Indian," "Mexican"—that most Americans (whites and "non-whites" alike) used in the 1950s. (See note 12 to
chapter 1
.) After 1970 or so the term "Native American" became preferred by some American Indians. People conscious of having mixed backgrounds were often uncertain what to call themselves. Until the 1970s many "mixed-blood Indians" told census enumerators that they were "white." So, it is assumed, did some light-skinned people of African background, who resented being called "mulattos" or "non-white." The census did not count "Hispanics" until 1970. By the 1980s "Hispanic" came under criticism—by no means all South Americans or West Indian Americans are of Spanish background—but that debate, too, is another, later story.

2.
Terry Wilson,
Teaching American Indian History
(Washington, 1993), 39–42; Russell Thornton,
American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492
(Norman, 1987).

3.
Robert Berkhofer,
The White Man's Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present
(New York, 1978), 179–88; William Hagan,
American Indians
(Chicago, 1979); Kenneth Philp,
John Collier's Crusade for Indian Reform
, 1920–1954 (Tucson, 1976); and Ronald Takaki, A
Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America
(Boston, 1993), 84–105, 228–45.

4.
Francis Paul Prucha, "Indian Relations," in Jack Greene, ed.,
Encyclopedia of American Political History
, Vol. 2 (New York, 1984), 609–22; Berkhofer,
White Man's Indian
, 186–90.

5.
The numbers in 1960 included (for the first time) people living in Alaska and Hawaii, admitted as states in 1959. Roughly 15,000 Indians lived in these new states, mostly in Alaska. As noted earlier, all these numbers can deceive. Many Indians, especially prior to 1960, told enumerators that they were white. Only in the 1960s, with the rise of Indian assertiveness and pride, did this habit begin to change in a major way. By 1970, 793,000 people told the census that they were Indian. This represented an increase of 450,000 over the number counted in 1950, a jump that cannot begin to be explained by population growth.

6.
Reed Ueda,
Postwar Immigrant America: A Social History
(Boston, 1994), 42–44; Victor Greene, "Immigration Policy," in Jack Greene, ed,
Encyclopedia
, 2:579–91; Roger Daniels,
Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States Since 1850
(Seattle, 1988), 195–98; Takaki,
Different Mirror
, 191–224, 246–76; and David Reimers,
Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America
(New York, 1985). See also
chapter 1
for further data on Asian-Americans.

7.
Daniels,
Asian America
, 283–84, 305–6. Close relatives included spouses, parents, children, and siblings of United States citizens. When these newcomers gained citizenship, their close relatives, too, could come to America as non-quota immigrants. Over time, therefore, the family reunification provisions resulted in far higher immigration than legislators had anticipated. Legislation in 1948 and there after concerning "displaced peoples" and other war-affected refugees enabled a few more southern and eastern Europeans (and others) to come to the United States, but these numbers were not large. Americans who advocated liberalization of immigrant policies in these years remained unhappy.

8.
Joseph Fitzpatrick,
Puerto Rican Americans: The Meaning of Migration to the Mainland
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1971), 10–15.

9.
The program was ended in 1964. See Ueda,
Postwar Immigrant America
, 32–35. Also Ernesto Galarza,
Merchants of Labor: The Mexican Bracero Story
(Charlotte, Calif., 1964); Richard Craig,
The Bracero Program: Interest Groups and Foreign Policy
(Austin, 1971); Carlos Cortes, "Mexicans," in Stephan Thernstrom, ed.,
Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups
(Cambridge, Mass., 1980), 703; Mario Garcia,
Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology, and Identity
, 1930–1960 (New Haven, 1989); and Takaki,
Different Mirror
, 166–90, 311–39.