219
| The longer the time a person spends reappraising
Kalisch, R. (2009). The functional neuroanatomy of reappraisal: Time matters.
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 33
, 1215–1226
|
219
| Putting our feelings into words
Pennebaker, J. W., & Beall, S. K. (1986). Confronting a traumatic event: Toward an understanding of inhibition and disease.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95
, 274–281.
|
219
| Preschoolers who can describe their feelings
Denham, S. A. (1986). Social cognition, prosocial behavior, and emotion in preschoolers: Contextual validation.
Child Development, 57
, 194–201; Denham, S. A., & Burton, R. (1996). A social-emotional intervention for at-risk 4-year-olds.
Journal of School Psychology, 34
, 225–245; Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., Hanish, L. D., & Spinrad, T. L. (2001). Preschoolers’ spontaneous emotion vocabulary: Relations to likability.
Early Education & Development, 12
, 11–27; Fujiki, M., Brinton, B., & Clarke, D. (2002). Emotion regulation in children with specific language impairment.
Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 33
, 102–111; Izard, C., Fine, S., Schultz, D., Mostow, A., Ackerman, B., & Youngstrom, E. (2001). Emotion knowledge as a predictor of social behavior and academic competence in children at risk.
Psychological Science, 12
, 18–23; Mostow, A. J., Izard, C. E., Fine, S., & Trentacosta, C. J. (2002). Modeling emotional, cognitive, and behavioral predictors of peer acceptance.
Child Development, 73
, 1775–1787.
|
219
| High school students who write about
Ramirez, G., & Beilock, S. L. (2011). Writing about testing worries boosts exam performance in the classroom.
Science, 331
, 211–213.
|
219
| We have found that labeling the affective aspect
Lieberman, M. D., Inagaki, T. K., Tabibnia, G., & Crockett, M. J. (2011). Subjective responses to emotional stimuli during labeling, reappraisal, and distraction.
Emotion, 3
, 468–480
;
Burklund, L. J., Creswell, J. D., Irwin, M. R., & Lieberman, M. D. (under review). The common neural bases of affect labeling and reappraisal.
|
220
| we found that affect labeling helped the most
Kircanski, K., Lieberman, M. D., & Craske, M. G. (2012). Feelings into words: Contributions of language to exposure therapy.
Psychological Science, 23
, 1086–1091.
|
220
| When people label an emotional picture
Hariri, A. R., Bookheimer, S. Y., & Mazziotta, J. C. (2000). Modulating emotional responses: Effects of a neocortical network on the limbic system.
Neuroreport, 11
(1), 43–48; Lieberman, M. D., Eisenberger, N. I., Crockett, M. J., Tom, S., Pfeifer, J. H., & Way, B. M. (2007). Putting feelings into words: Affect labeling disrupts amygdala activity to affective stimuli.
Psychological Science, 18
, 421–428; Burklund, L. J., Creswell, J. D., Irwin, M. R., & Lieberman, M. D. (under review). The common neural bases of affect labeling and reappraisal; Payer, D. E., Baicy, K., Lieberman, M. D., & London, E. D. (2012). Overlapping neural substrates between intentional and incidental down-regulation of negative emotions.
Emotion, 12
(2), 229.
|
221
| We have seen similar things going on in the rVLPFC
Payer, D. E., Baicy, K., Lieberman, M. D., & London, E. D. (2012). Overlapping neural substrates between intentional and incidental down-regulation of negative emotions.
Emotion, 2
, 229–235; Burklund, L. J., Creswell, J. D., Irwin, M. R., & Lieberman, M. D. (under review). The common neural bases of affect labeling and reappraisal.
|
223
| George is merely “experience—an entity experiencing”
Isherwood, C. (2001).
A Single Man
. London: Vintage Books, p. 11.
|
224
| Fewer than half of the doctors in the United States
Adams, S. (2012). Why do so many doctors regret their job choice?
Forbes.com
, April 27:
http://www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2012/04/27/why-do-so-many-doctors-regret-their-job-choice/
.
|
224
| bang ye,
which literally means “exposing grandfathers”
Glionna, J. (2010). China tries in vain to keep bellies buttoned up.
Los Angeles Times
, August 10.
|
225
| Both with strangers and with our romantic partners
Righetti, F., & Finkenauer, C. (2011). If you are able to control yourself, I will trust you: The role of perceived self-control in interpersonal trust.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100
(5), 874.
|
225
| This makes good sense in the case of romantic partners
Pronk, T. M., Karremans, J. C., & Wigboldus, D. H. (2011). How can you resist? Executive control helps romantically involved individuals to stay faithful.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100
(5), 827.
|
225
| the creators of the SAT designed it to be a measure of intelligence
Gladwell, M. (2001, December 17). Examined life: What Stanley H. Kaplan taught us about the SAT.
New Yorker
, 86.
|
226
| “socialized behavior is thus the supreme achievement
Allport, F. H. (1924).
Social Psychology
. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, p. 31.
|
227
| “I have a lot of beliefs, and I live by none of them”
Louis C.K. Live at the Beacon Theater
.
|
227
| “morals reformed—health preserved—industry invigorated”
Bentham, J. (1995).
The Panopticon Writings.
Edited by M. Bozovic. London: Verso, pp. 29–95.
|
229
| The subject was 30 percent more likely
van Rompay, T. J., Vonk, D. J., & Fransen, M. L. (2009). The eye of the camera effects of security cameras on prosocial behavior.
Environment and Behavior, 41
(1), 60–74.
|
229
| Another study found that individuals were twice as likely to cheat
Zhong, C. B., Bohns, V. K., & Gino, F. (2010). Good lamps are the best police: Darkness increases dishonesty and self-interested behavior.
Psychological Science, 21
(3), 311–314.
|
229
| subjects wearing eye tracking devices
Risko, E. F., & Kingstone, A. (2011). Eyes wide shut: Implied social presence, eye tracking and attention.
Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 73
(2), 291–296.
|
229
| led people to pay 276 percent more into the honesty box
Bateson, M., Nettle, D., & Roberts, G. (2006). Cues of being watched enhance cooperation in a real-world setting.
Biology Letters, 2
(3), 412–414.
|
229
| a similar “eyes poster” nearly halved the amount of littering
Ernest-Jones, M., Nettle, D., & Bateson, M. (2011). Effects of eye images on everyday cooperative behavior: A field experiment.
Evolution and Human Behavior, 32
(3), 172–178; see also Powell, K. L., Roberts, G., & Nettle, D. (2012). Eye images increase charitable donations: Evidence from an opportunistic field experiment in a supermarket.
Ethology, 118
, 1096–1101; Nettle, D., Nott, K., & Bateson, M. (2012). “Cycle thieves, we are watching you”: Impact of a simple signage intervention against bicycle theft.
PLOS One, 7
(12), e51738.
|
229
| Even pictures of a defunct toy robot’s eyes
Burnham, T. C., & Hare, B. (2007). Engineering human cooperation.
Human Nature, 18
(2), 88–108.
|
230
| Men presented with the “face” version of the three dots
Rigdon, M., Ishii, K., Watabe, M., & Kitayama, S. (2009). Minimal social cues in the dictator game.
Journal of Economic Psychology, 30
(3), 358–367.
|
231
| When children (ages nine and up) were put in this scenario
Beaman, A. L., Klentz, B., Diener, E., & Svanum, S. (1979). Self-awareness and transgression in children: Two field studies.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37
(10), 1835.
|
231
| self-consciousness is essentially a dialogue
Mead, G. H. (1934).
Mind, Self, and Society from the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist.
Edited by C. W. Morris. Chicago: University of Chicago; Cooley, C. H. (1902).
Human Nature and the Social Order
. New York: Scribner.
|
231
| first-year college students were ten times less likely
Diener, E., & Wallbom, M. (1976). Effects of self-awareness on antinormative behavior.
Journal of Research in Personality, 10
(1), 107–111.
|
231
| People are also more likely to conform
Abrams, D., & Brown, R. (1989). Self-consciousness and social identity: Self-regulation as a group member.
Social Psychology Quarterly, 52
, 311–318; Duval, S. (1976). Conformity on a visual task as a function of personal novelty on attitudinal dimensions and being reminded of the object status of self.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 12
(1), 87–98; Swart, C., Ickes, W., & Morgenthaler, E. S. (1978). The effect of objective self awareness on compliance in a reactance situation.
Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 6
(1), 135–139.
|
233
| Manfred Spitzer and Ernst Fehr ran this study
Spitzer, M., Fischbacher, U., Herrnberger, B., Grön, G., & Fehr, E. (2007). The neural signature of social norm compliance.
Neuron, 56
(1), 185–196.
|
234
| People who conform most to this kind of norm
Campbell-Meiklejohn, D. K., Bach, D. R., Roepstorff, A., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. (2010). How the opinion of others affects our valuation of objects.
Current Biology, 20
(13), 1165–1170; Campbell-Meiklejohn, D. K., Kanai, R., Bahrami, B., Bach, D. R., Dolan, R. J., Roepstorff, A., & Frith, C. D. (2012). Structure of orbitofrontal cortex predicts social influence.
Current Biology, 22
(4), R123–R124.
|
234
| there is research indicating that just imagining what others think of you
Pfeifer, J. H., Masten, C. L., Borofsky, L. A., Dapretto, M., Fuligni, A. J., & Lieberman, M. D. (2009). Neural correlates of direct and reflected self-appraisals in adolescents and adults: When social perspective-taking informs self-perception.
Child Development, 80
(4), 1016–1038; Ochsner, K. N., Beer, J. S., Robertson, E. R., Cooper, J. C., Gabrieli, J. D., Kihsltrom, J. F., & D’Esposito, M. (2005). The neural correlates of direct and reflected self-knowledge.
NeuroImage, 28
(4), 797–814.
|
234
| Can you guess which brain region
Lieberman, M. D. (2007). Social cognitive neuroscience: A review of core processes.
Annual Review of Psychology, 58
, 259–289.
|
242
| In 1989, more than 200,000 college freshmen were asked
Easterlin, R. A., & Crimmins, E. M. (1991). Private materialism, personal self-fulfillment, family life, and public interest: The nature, effects, and causes of recent changes in the values of American youth.
Public Opinion Quarterly, 55
(4), 499–533.
|
243
| Economists have been obsessed with this question
Easterlin, R. A. (1974). Does economic growth improve the human lot? In P. A. David and M. W. Reder (Eds.).
Nations and Households in Economic Growth: Essays in Honour of Moses Abramovitz
. New York: Academic Press; Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Beyond money.
Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5
(1), 1–31.
|
243
| If we look at a large number of countries
Diener, E., Sandvik, E., Seidlitz, L., & Diener, M. (1993). The relationship between income and subjective well-being: Relative or absolute?
Social Indicators Research, 28
(3), 195–223.
|
244
| happiness researcher Ed Diener looked at surveys of thousands of U.S. adults
Ibid.
|
244
| one study examined changing U.S. income levels between 1946 and 1990
Diener, E., & Suh, E. (1997). Measuring quality of life: Economic, social, and subjective indicators.
Social Indicators Research, 40
, 189–216.
|
244
| This effect, called the
Easterlin Paradox
Easterlin, R. A. (1974). Does economic growth improve the human lot? In P. A. David and M. W. Reder (Eds.).
Nations and Households in Economic Growth: Essays in Honour of Moses Abramovitz
. New York: Academic Press; Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Beyond money.
Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5
(1), 1–31.
|
244
| real income increased 500 percent
Easterlin, R. A. (1995). Will raising the incomes of all increase the happiness of all?
Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 27
(1), 35–47.
|
246
| Psychologists pointed out that humans
Frederick, S., & Loewenstein, G. (1999). Hedonic adaptation. In D. Kanheman & E. Diener (Eds.).
The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology
. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, pp. 302–329.
|
246
| They reported being no happier
Brickman, P., Coates, D., & Janoff-Bulman, R. (1978). Lottery winners and accident victims: Is happiness relative?
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36
(8), 917.
|
246
| This
relative income
argument suggests
Kahneman, D., Krueger, A. B., Schkade, D., Schwarz, N., & Stone, A. A. (2006). Would you be happier if you were richer? A focusing illusion.
Science, 312
(5782), 1908–1910.
|
246
| In the book
Bowling Alone
Robert Putman
Putnam, R. D. (2000).
Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community
. New York: Simon & Schuster.
|
247
| Pretty much any way economists examine
Ibid.; Helliwell, J. F., & Putnam, R. D. (2004). The social context of well-being.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B: Biological Sciences
, 1435–1446.
|
247
| One study compared the impact of income
Becchetti, L., Pelloni, A., & Rossetti, F. (2008). Relational goods, sociability, and happiness.
Kyklos, 61
(3), 343–363.
|
247
| volunteering was associated with greater well-being
Borgonovi, F. (2008). Doing well by doing good: The relationship between formal volunteering and self-reported health and happiness.
Social Science & Medicine, 66
(11), 2321–2334.
|
247
| giving to charity is related to changes in well-being
Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., … , & Norton, M. I. (2010). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal (No. w16415). National Bureau of Economic Research.
|
247
| having a friend whom you see on most days,
Powdthavee, N. (2008). Putting a price tag on friends, relatives, and neighbours: Using surveys of life satisfaction to value social relationships.
Journal of Socio-economics, 37
(4), 1459–1480.
|
248
| social factors are also huge determinants of physical health
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review.
PLOS Medicine, 7
(7), e1000316.
|
248
| People are significantly less likely to be married today
Bumpass, L. L., Sweet, J. A., & Cherlin, A. (1991). The role of cohabitation in declining rates of marriage.
Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53
, 913–927; Popenoe, D. (1993). American family decline, 1960–1990: A review and appraisal.
Journal of Marriage and the Family
, 55, 527–542.
|
248
| We volunteer less, participate in fewer social groups
Costa, D. L., & Kahn, M. E. (2001). Understanding the decline in social capital, 1952–1998 (No. w8295). National Bureau of Economic Research; Putnam, R. D. (2000).
Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community
. New York: Simon & Schuster.
|
248
| people were asked to list their friends
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Brashears, M. E. (2006). Social isolation in America: Changes in core discussion networks over two decades.
American Sociological Review, 71
(3), 353–375.
|
250
| In 1965, only 45 percent of college freshmen
Easterlin, R. A., & Crimmins, E. M. (1991). Private materialism, personal self-fulfillment, family life, and public interest: The nature, effects, and causes of recent changes in the values of American youth.
Public Opinion Quarterly, 55
(4), 499–533.
|
250
| more individuals endorse materialism
Nickerson, C., Schwarz, N., Diener, E., & Kahneman, D. (2003). Zeroing in on the dark side of the American dream: A closer look at the negative consequences of the goal for financial success.
Psychological Science, 14
(6), 531–536; Chan, R., & Joseph, S. (2000). Dimensions of personality, domains of aspiration, and subjective well-being.
Personality and Individual Differences, 28
(2), 347–354.
|
252
| Approximately a third of all Americans live in apartments
NMHC tabulations of 2012 Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement, U.S. Census Bureau (
http://www.census.gov/cps
). Updated October 2012.
http://www.nmhc.org/Content.cfm?ItemNumber=55508
.
|
254
| when people are prompted to think about time
Mogilner, C. (2010). The pursuit of happiness.
Psychological Science, 21
(9), 1348–1354.
|
254
| benefits of socializing through social snacking
Gardner, W. L., Pickett, C. L., & Knowles, M. (2005). Social snacking and shielding. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. V. Hippel (Eds.).
The Social Outcast: Ostracism, Social Exclusion, Rejection, & Bullying
. New York: Psychology Press.
|
254
| they reported the pain to be less painful
Master, S. L., Eisenberger, N. I., Taylor, S. E., Naliboff, B. D., & Lieberman, M. D. (2009). A picture’s worth: Partner photographs reduce experimentally induced pain.
Psychological Science, 20
, 1316–1318; Eisenberger, N. I., Master, S. L., Inagaki, T. K., Taylor, S. E., Shirinyan, D., Lieberman, M. D., & Naliboff, B. (2011). Attachment figures activate a safety signal-related neural region and reduce pain experience.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108
, 11721–11726.
|
254
| digital picture frames to people in hospitals
http://www.nikon-kraftderbilder.de
.
|
255
| we are more motivated to tune in to our favorite shows
Derrick, J. L., Gabriel, S., & Hugenberg, K. (2009). Social surrogacy: How favored television programs provide the experience of belonging.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45
(2), 352–362.
|
255
| it is also likely to “crowd out”
Bruni, L., & Stanca, L. (2008). Watching alone: Relational goods, television and happiness.
Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 65
(3), 506–528.
|
255
| first seminal study examining these questions
Kraut, R., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukophadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being?
American Psychologist, 53
(9), 1017.
|
255
| A series of other papers came out soon after
Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2009). Social consequences of the Internet for adolescents: A decade of research.
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18
(1), 1–5.
|
256
| Because Facebook use is more of an extension
Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook “friends”: Social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites.
Journal of Computer
-
Mediated Communication, 12
(4), 1143–1168; Grieve, R., Indian, M., Witteveen, K., Anne Tolan, G., & Marrington, J. (2013). Face-to-face or Facebook: Can social connectedness be derived online?
Computers in Human Behavior, 29
(3), 604–609; Steinfield, C., Ellison, N. B., & Lampe, C. (2008). Social capital, self-esteem, and use of online social network sites: A longitudinal analysis.
Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29
(6), 434–445.
|
