The Silk Road: A New History (66 page)

and the Mongol Empire, 229

and oasis towns, 8

and Silk Road routes, 6, 9–10,
22–23

and Turfan, 82

withdrawal of Chinese military, 160

Tamerlane, 231

Tamjaka, 47

Tamluk, 160, 164

Tang Code, 92, 96, 148, 183–84

Tang dynasty

and art trade, 21

and Central Asian economy, 107

and Chang’an, 141–43, 147–59, 166

and contracts, 103–4, 192–94

and Dunhuang cave

documents, 184–85, 186–88

and Gaochang City,
105

and Khotan, 79, 211, 226

and Kucha, 79–82, 211

military expenditures, 8

monetary system, 184

and moneylending, 151–52

and Samarkand, 137

and Sogdiana, 113, 116, 129

“Tang Barbie,”
color plate 8

and taxation, 184, 187, 214–16

and trade disputes, 149

and Turfan, 21, 82, 85, 88–89, 91–92, 94, 96–98, 103–8,
105
, 111, 211

and volume of Silk Road trade, 237

and Zhang-family rule at Dunhuang, 190

Tanguts, 190–91, 228

Tang Zhangru, 94

Tarim River, 58, 60

Tarxun, 135

taxation

and the An Lushan rebellion, 157

cloth as payment, 106–7

and coins, 95, 97

and Dandan Uiliq, 214–17

and Kroraina Kingdom, 48

and Kucha, 77

and Loulan documents, 43

and payments to soldiers, 215

and the Tang dynasty, 184, 187, 214–16

tax biscuits, 152, 157

tax documents as evidence, 238

and Turfan, 91–92, 96, 99–102,
100–102
, 108

tea, 233

technology

availability of Dunhuang

documents, 176

and locating sites, 212

and migrant populations, 4, 239

paper-making technology, 137–39, 238

silk technology, 238

technological transfer, 137–39

terra-cotta soldiers, 141

textiles

cotton, 38,
39
, 138, 195

and the Dunhuang economy, 195

imported goods, 233

and Kroraina Kingdom, 38,
39
,
40
, 41–43, 49–51

of Mongols, 231

nomadic themes in,
203

Shanpula burial garb,
204

and the Sogdians, 119

and the Tang monetary system, 184

tax cloth, 106–7

and Turfan markets, 106–7

See also
silk

Thailand, 156

Theodosius II, 97

Thierry, François, 76

Thousand Buddha (Quianfodong) site, 172

The Thousand-Character Classic.
180

Three Realms Monastery, Dunhuang, 178–79, 181, 222

Tianshan Mountains, 113–14

Tibet and Tibetan Empire

and the An Lushan rebellion, 184–85, 212

and Buddhist pilgrimages, 221

challenge to Tang dynasty, 80, 107, 108, 157

collapse of, 216

and diplomatic envoys, 192

and Dunhuang cave

documents, 169, 185–87

and Khotan, 212

and the Sogdian Ancient Letters, 119

Tibetan language, 180–81, 186–87, 211, 240–41

Times of London
, 8

Timur the Lame, 231

Tocharian language, 13, 44, 71–74

Tocharoi people, 71, 72

Tokmak, 114, 115

Tongzhou, Shaanxi, 144

topazes, 155–56

tortoiseshell, 20, 165

tourism

and Astana graveyard, 93, 172

and desert ruins, 10

and Jiaohe ruins, 91

and Khotan, 199, 233

and the Kizil caves, 57–58

and
mazar
shrines, 234,
color plate 16A, color plate 16B

and Melikawat ruins, 207

Tragbal Pass, 27

transformation texts, 76–77, 179, 188

translations, 214

travel passes
(guosuo)

and diplomatic envoys, 17

of Kucha,
57
, 77–80,
78
, 82

at Niya, 36–37

and sea travel, 165

as source of evidence, 238

and supervision of trade, 237

and Turfan, 89, 103–4

tribute, 231

Trinkler, Emil, 212

Trombert, Éric, 82, 184

Turco-Sogdian, 195–96

Turdi, 212

Turfan

and Astana graveyard site,
84
,
86
–
87
, 93–99, 151

burial practices of, 92–94, 98–99

and caravan trade, 88, 103–7, 232

climate of,
11
, 21, 92–93

coinage of, 99,
100–102
, 103–7, 111

coins of,
color plate 4B

and diplomatic envoys, 192

foods of, 83

and Gaochang city,
105

languages of, 72, 74–75

religions of, 182, 228, 231

and Sogdians, 21, 83, 85–86, 91, 98–99

and the Tang dynasty, 21, 82, 85, 88–89, 91–92, 94, 96–98, 103–8,
105
, 111, 211

taxation in, 91–92, 96, 99–102,
100–102
, 108

textile finds from, 14

tomb figurines,
140

and tourism, 10,
color plate 9

and trade regulation, 237

and Uighur refugees, 190–91

and Xuanzang’s travels, 83–91

Turgesh, 135–36

Turkic languages, 182, 233–34

Turkish kaghanates, 75, 79

Turks, 120, 127, 135, 226–27

Twgrhy language, 71–72, 211, 257n30, 258n35

Uddyana Kingdom, 94

Uighur kaghanates, 108–11, 190–92, 196, 216, 220, 222, 224, 226

Uighur language

and Dunhuang cave

documents, 181, 195–96, 241

and Khotanese, 199, 211, 234

and Manichaeism, 108,
109
, 110

and the Qing dynasty, 232–33

spoken, 168–69

and Tocharian, 71–74

and Turfan, 108

from Yarkand, 228

Uighurs

and the An Lushan rebellion, 157

defeat of Tibetans, 218

and diplomatic envoys, 191, 192, 224

and distribution of languages, 73 (
see also
Uighur language)

and Dunhuang, 168, 190–91, 216

and Khotan, 226, 233–34

Kirghiz conquest of, 108, 190, 216, 226

and Kucha, 80

and Manichaeism, 108–11,
109
, 228

mercenaries, 108

tensions with Han population, 93

and Turfan, 83, 108–10

and Zhang Yichao,
189

Umayyad Caliphate, 129

Urumqi Museum, 94

Vagiti Vadhaga, 209

Vaissière, Étienne de la, 119

Vajrayana, 221

Vandak, 85–86, 86–87

Varkhuman, 125, 127, 129

vinaya
law, 51, 79, 221