Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (154 page)

7.
John Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy
(New York, 1982), 174.

8.
Oakley,
God's Country
, 148; Marty Jezer,
The Dark Ages: Life in the United States
, 1945–1960 (Boston, 1982), 60.

9.
Robert Divine,
Eisenhower and the Cold War
(New York, 1981), 108.

10.
Emmet Hughes,
The Ordeal of Power: A Political Memoir of the Eisenhower Years
(New York, 1963), 103–5; David Patterson, "Pacifism, Internationalism, and Arms Limitation," in Stanley Kutler, ed.,
Encyclopedia of the United States in the Twentieth Century
(New York, 1995); Stephen Ambrose,
Eisenhower: Soldier and President
(New York, 1990), 323–25.

11.
H. W. Brands, "The Age of Vulnerability: Eisenhower and the National Security State,"
American Historical Review
, 94 (October 1989), 974. This was a report produced by a committee headed by James Killian, president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

12.
Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 140–45.

13.
Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 379; Halberstam,
Fifties
, 396–98.

14.
John Steele Gordon, "The Ordeal of Engine Charlie,"
American Heritage
, Feb./March 1995, pp. 18–22.

15.
Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 375. Ambrose notes that bird dogs do not hunt for food.

16.
Hughes,
Ordeal
, 77; Marquis Childs,
Witness to Power
(New York), 177. The scribbler was Jerry Persons, the recipient Hughes. The quip about Wilson and automatic transmission is attributed to various journalists, usually James Reston.

17.
Hughes,
Ordeal
, 251; Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 289.

18.
Richard Immerman, "Eisenhower and Dulles: Who Made the Decisions?"
Political Psychology
, 1 (1979), 21–38; Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 160.

19.
Books on Dulles include Ronald Pruessen,
John Foster Dulles and the Road to Power
(New York, 1982); Frederick Marks,
Power and Peace: The Diplomacy of John Foster Dulles
(Westport, Conn., 1993); and Richard Immerman, ed.,
John Foster Dulles and the Diplomacy of the Cold War
(Princeton, 1990).

20.
I. F. Stone,
The Haunted Fifties
, 1953–1963 (Boston, 1963), 99–101. See also 14, 15, 263 for other sour references to Dulles.

21.
Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 136–37.

22.
Stephen Whitfield,
The Culture of the Cold War
(Baltimore, 1991), 7–9.

23.
Robert Divine, "John Foster Dulles: What You See Is What You Get,"
Diplomatic History
, 15 (Spring 1991), 284–85.

24.
Peter Grose,
Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles
(Boston, 1994); Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 157.

25.
Bruce Kuniholm, "U.S. Policy in the Near East: The Triumphs and Tribulations of the Truman Age," in Michael Lacey, ed.,
The Truman Presidency
(Washington, 1989), 299–338 ; Divine,
Eisenhower
, 73–78; Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 332–33

26.
Richard Immerman,
The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention
(Austin, 1987); Stephen Schlesinger and Stephen Kinzer,
Bitter Fruit: The Untold Story of the American Coup in Guatemala
(Garden City, N.Y., 1982); Stephen Ambrose,
Eisenhower: The President
(New York, 1984). (This is Volume 2 of Ambrose's larger biography of Eisenhower. Other references from Ambrose on Eisenhower in this chapter refer to the previously cited one-volume version [1990]).

27.
Joseph Alsop, a well-connected syndicated columnist, had advance knowledge of the CIA's plan in Iran but kept quiet.
New York Times
, Jan. 23, 1994. See
chapter 14
for discussion of the U-2 Affair.

28.
John Prados,
Presidents' Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations Since World War II
(New York, 1987);
New York Times
, Oct. 9, 1994 (concerning Japan).

29.
Kermit Roosevelt,
Counter-Coup: The Struggle for the Control of Iran
(New York, 1979)

30.
Halberstam,
Fifties
, 387.

31.
Samuel Wells, "The Origins of Massive Retaliation,"
Political Science Quarterly
, 96 (Spring 1981), 31–52; Russell Weigley,
The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy
(New York, 1973), 404.

32.
Brands "Age of Vulnerability"; Divine,
Eisenhower
, 38.

33.
John Diggins,
The Proud Decades: America in War and Peace, 1941–1960
(New York, 1988), 146.

34.
Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 478; William O'Neill,
American High: The Years of Confidence
, 1945–1960 (New York, 1986), 231–32, 272. The Soviets were first to launch successfully an artificial satellite,
Sputnik
, into orbit, in October 1957, but this much-noted success indicated mainly that they had the advantage in terms of thrust, a sign of their overreliance on heavy, awkward warheads. See
chapter 14
.

35.
Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 133.

36.
Sherman Adams,
First-Hand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration
(New York, 1961), 154–55; Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 311–13.

37.
The percentage vis-a-vis GNP dropped a little more in the early 1960s, to around 8 percent in 1965. This reflected the considerable growth in the civilian economy in those years, not a decline in defense spending (which accelerated rapidly).

38.
Matthew Ridgway,
Soldier: The Memoirs of Matthew B. Ridgway
(New York, 1956); and Maxwell Taylor,
The Uncertain Trumpet
(New York, 1960).

39.
Discussed later in this chapter.

40.
Quote in Brands, "Age of Vulnerability," 979. These debates are also well covered in Wells, "Origins of Massive Retaliation"; Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 147–51, 161, 251, 300–301; and Arthur Schesinger, Jr., "The Ike Age Revisited,"
Reviews in American History
, 4 (March 1983), 1–11.

41.
Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 150.

42.
Wells, "Origins of Massive Retaliation," 36.

43.
George Herring,
America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam
, 1950–1975 (Philadelphia, 1986), 3.

44.
Robert McMahon, "Toward a Post-Colonial Order: Truman Administration Policies Toward South and Southeast Asia," in Lacey, ed.,
Truman Presidency
, 339–65.

45.
State Department team memo, 1950, cited in William Chafe,
The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II
(New York, 1991), 257.

46.
Historic animosities divided China and neighboring Vietnam, and Ho deeply distrusted Mao. The Chinese, however, did offer Ho large stocks of weapons and sanctuary during his fight with the French.

47.
Stephen Ambrose,
Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy Since
1938 (New York, 1985), 140–45; Herring,
America's Longest War
, 11–42.

48.
David Anderson,
Trapped by Success: The Eisenhower Administration and Vietnam
, 1953–1961 (New York, 1991), 154; Lloyd Gardner,
Approaching Vietnam: From World War II Through Dienbienphu
, 1941–1954 (New York, 1988).

49.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 25–29.

50.
Ibid., 30–32.

51.
Divine,
Eisenhower
, 49; Lloyd Gardner, "America's War in Vietnam: The End of Exceptionalism," in D. Michael Shafer, ed.,
The Legacy: The Vietnam War in the American Imagination
(Boston, 1990), 9–29; Ambrose,
Rise
, 143.

52.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 29–35.

53.
Divine,
Eisenhower
, 50.

54.
Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 363.

55.
Anderson,
Trapped by Success
, 25–39; Herring,
America's Longest War
, 32; Halberstam,
Fifties
, 407.

56.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 33–35.

57.
George Herring and Richard Immerman, "Eisenhower, Dulles, and Dienbienphu: 'The Day We Didn't Go to War' Revisited,"
Journal of American History
, 71 (Sept. 1984), 343–63; Marilyn Young,
The Vietnam Wars
, 1945–1990 (New York, 1991), 31–36.

58.
Anderson,
Trapped by Success
, 59–67.

59.
Townsend Hoopes,
The Devil and John Foster Dulles
(Boston, 1973), 222. The United States did not recognize the People's Republic, the stated reason for its refusal to participate.

60.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 45.

61.
Ibid., 57.

62.
Ibid., 50.

63.
William Knowland, "Be Prepared to Fight in China,"
Collier's
, Jan. 24, 1954, p. 120; Norman Graebner,
The New Isolationism: A Study in Politics and Foreign Policy Since
1950 (New York, 1956), 125. Formosa was the Portuguese name for Taiwan and was widely used in the United States at that time.

64.
Matsu and Quemoy were more than 150 miles apart, off different parts of the mainland coast. References to Quemoy usually meant the main island of Quemoy, among several islands collectively called Quemoy. The Matsu group is more than 100 miles from the closest parts of Taiwan, Quemoy 150 miles from Taiwan.

65.
Gordon Chang, "The Absence of War in the U.S.-China Confrontation over Quemoy and Matsu in 1954–1955: Contingency, Luck, Deterrence?,"
American Historical Review
, 98 (Dec. 1993), 1500–1524; Herbert Parmet,
Eisenhower and the American Crusades
(New York, 1972), 397–99; Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 373–75.

66.
Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 383–84; Brands, "Age of Vulnerability."

67.
Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 383–84.