Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (175 page)

10.
Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 296–98; John Blum,
Years of Discord: American Politics and Society, 1961–1974
(New York, 1991), 380, 395; Garthoff,
Détente and Confrontation
, 199–247; Hoff,
Nixon Reconsidered
, 187–91, 201–3.

11.
Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 284–85.

12.
Stephen Ambrose,
Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician, 1962–1972
(New York, 1989), 546–48, 614–16. Also Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 320–26; Garthoff,
Détente and Confrontation
, 127–36, 184–98, 289–318; Peter Carroll,
It Seemed Like Nothing Happened: The Tragedy and Promise of America in the
1970s (New York, 1982), 77–79.

13.
Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 262–88.

14.
Ibid., 329–38.

15.
Ambrose, "Between Two Poles"; Garthoff,
Détente and Confrontation
, 8–9, 29–33.

16.
Hoff,
Nixon Reconsidered
, 208–42; Stanley Karnow,
Vietnam: A History
(New York, 1983), 567–612; Schulzinger,
Henry Kissinger
, 29–51.

17.
William Chafe,
The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II
(New York, 1991), 38; Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 300. Nixon denied ever having outlined such a scenario; see Hoff-Wilson, "RMN," 187–89. Ho Chi Minh died in September 1969, but new leaders in Hanoi carried on his policies.

18.
Michael Lee Lanning and Dan Cragg,
Inside the
VC
and the
NVA:
The Real Story of North Vietnam's Armed Forces
(New York, 1992).

19.
George Herring,
America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam
, 1950–1975 (Philadelphia, 1986), 224–25, 256; Neil Sheehan, "The Graves of Indo-china," New
York Times
, April 28, 1994.

20.
William Shawcross,
Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon, and the Destruction of Cambodia
(New York, 1979); Marilyn Young,
The Vietnam Wars
, 1945–1990 (New York, 1991), 245–49.

21.
Ambrose,
Nixon: Triumph
, 264–66; Christian Appy,
Working-Class War: American Combat Soldiers and Vietnam
(Chapel Hill, 1993), 29. The draft itself was ended in 1973, after American soldiers had been called home from Vietnam.

22.
Guenter Lewy,
America in Vietnam
(New York, 1978), 166–89; Hoff,
Nixon Reconsidered
, 163–66.

23.
Carroll,
It Seemed
, 4; "Hamburger Hill" was hardly a new phrase; the Korean War, too, featured one.

24.
Ambrose,
Nixon: Triumph
, 418.

25.
Todd Gitlin,
The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage
(New York, 1990), 417–19; and Thomas Paterson, "Historical Memory and Illusive Victories: Vietnam and Central America,"
Diplomatic History
, 12 (Winter 1988), 10. See also Ronald Spector,
After Tet: The Bloodiest Year in Vietnam
(New York, 1993).

26.
Herbert Parmet,
Richard Nixon and His America
(Boston, 1990), 570–76; Gitlin,
Sixties
, 379; Blum,
Years of Discord
, 356–59.

27.
Carroll,
It Seemed, 6
.

28.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 173; Gitlin,
Sixties
, 394–96; Kenneth Heineman,
Campus Wars: The Peace Movement at American State Universities in the Vietnam Era
(New York, 1993).

29.
Blum,
Years of Discord
, 367; Herring,
America's Longest War
, 233–35; William Leuchtenburg, A
Troubled Feast: American Society Since
1945 (Boston, 1973), 244.

30.
Leuchtenburg,
Troubled Feast
, 244; Joseph Kelner, "Kent State at 25,"
New York Times
, May 4, 1995.

31.
Terry Anderson,
The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America from Greensboro to Wounded Knee
(New York, 1995), preface (n.p.), 350–52; Gitlin,
Sixties
, 409.

32.
Newsweek
, May 18, 1970, p. 50; Carroll,
It Seemed
, 57.

33.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 240–42.

34.
Lewy,
America in Vietnam
, 356–59; Ambrose,
Nixon: Triumph
, 428; Thomas Boettcher,
Vietnam: The Valor and the Sorrow
(Boston, 1985), 390–93. Calley was paroled in November 1974.

35.
New York Times
v.
the United States, United States v. the Washington Post
, 403 U.S. 713 (1971). The dissenters were Harlan and Nixon's two appointees to that time, Burger and Blackmun. See Blum,
Years of Discord
, 388; Ambrose,
Nixon: Triumph
, 446–47.

36.
Ambrose,
Nixon: Triumph
, 447–49, 465–66.

37.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 246–48; Chafe,
Unfinished Journey
, 399; Young,
Vietnam Wars
, 254–80.

38.
Fred Siegel,
Troubled Journey: From Pearl Harbor to Ronald Reagan
(New York, 1984), 247; Ambrose,
Nixon: Triumph
, 554.

39.
Byron Shafer,
Quiet Revolution: The Struggle for the Democratic Party and the Shaping of Post-reform Politics
(New York, 1983).

40.
Carroll,
It Seemed
, 82; Siegel,
Troubled Journey
, 248; Thomas Edsall,
The Politics of Inequality
(New York, 1984), 158; Edsall, "Race,"
Atlantic Monthly
, May 1991, pp. 53–86.

41.
Edwin Diamond and Stephen Bates,
The Spot: The Rise of Political Advertising on Television
(Cambridge, Mass.), 187–88.

42.
Ambrose,
Nixon: Triumph
, 582–83.

43.
Leuchtenburg,
Troubled Feast
, 256; Blum,
Years of Discord
, 419;
Newsweek
, Nov. 13, 1972, p. 31.

44.
Herbert Hill, "Black Workers, Organized Labor, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act: Legislative History and Litigation Record," in Hill and and James Jones, Jr., eds.,
Race in America: The Struggle for Equality
(Madison, 1993), 263–341.

45.
Jonathan Rieder,
Canarsie: The Jews and Italians of Brooklyn Against Liberalism
(Cambridge, Mass., 1985), 247–52; Edsall,
Politics of Inequality
, 145–78.

46.
James Baughman,
The Republic of Mass Culture: Journalism, Filmmaking, and Broadcasting in America Since
1941 (Baltimore, 1992), 177.

47.
Ambrose,
Nixon: Triumph
, 498.

48.
Blum,
Years of Discord
, 408.

49.
James Wilson, "The Politics of Regulation," in Wilson, ed.,
The Politics of Regulation
(New York, 1980), 388; Ambrose,
Nixon: Triumph
, 434–35, 502–5; Blum,
Years of Discord
, 414–18.

50.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 250–53.

51.
Other newcomers, later to become well-known Washington figures, who were first elected to Congress in 1972 included Pat Shroeder, a liberal Democrat chosen to the House from Colorado; Jesse Helms, an ultra-conservative elected to the Senate from North Carolina; Sam Nunn, a Democratic senator from Georgia; and Joseph Biden, a Democratic senator from Delaware. Those re-elected included Senators Edward Brooke of Massachusetts, Walter Mondale of Minnesota, Strom Thurmond of South Carolina, and James Eastland of Mississippi. Margaret Chase Smith, a Republican senator from Maine, lost after twenty-four years of service.
Newsweek
, Nov. 13, 1972, p. 36.

52.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 253–55; Parmet,
Richard Nixon
, 625; Stephen Ambrose,
Nixon: Ruin and Recovery
, 1973–1990 (New York, 1991), 38–58.

53.
For their efforts Kissinger and Le Due Tho won the Nobel Peace Prize, an award that amazed many contemporaries.

54.
Newsweek
, Feb. 5, 1973, p. 16.

55.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 256; Hoff-Wilson, "RMN," 189.

56.
Herring,
America's Longest War
, 257–68; Carroll,
It Seemed
, 94. Neither Nixon nor subsequent Presidents acknowledged the constitutionality of the law, which had little effect in the future.

57.
Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, 299; Garthoff,
Detente and Confrontation
, 259; Charles Morris, A
Time of Passion: America, 1960–1980
(New York, 1984), 146–48.

58.
Lloyd Gardner, "America's War in Vietnam: The End of Exceptionalism," in D. Michael Shafer, ed.,
The Legacy: The Vietnam War in the American Imagination
(Boston, 1990), 28. See also Morris Dickstein,
Gates of Eden: American Culture in the Sixties
(New York, 1977), 271.

59.
Kennedy,
Rise and Fall
, 406–8.

60.
Larry Berman,
Lyndon Johnson's War: The Road to Stalemate in Vietnam
(New York, 1989), 5; Landon Jones,
Great Expectations: America and the Baby Boom Generation
(New York, 1980), 102.

61.
Angry debates over the alleged draft-dodging of GOP vice-presidential nominee J. Danforth Quayle of Indiana in 1988, and of Democratic presidential candidate William Clinton of Arkansas in 1992, roiled the election campaigns in both years.

1.
Key sources for what follows are Stephen Ambrose,
Nixon: Ruin and Recovery
, 1973–1990 (New York, 1991); Ambrose,
Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician
, 1962–1972 (New York, 1989), 420–22, 501–5, 543–44, 558–63, and passim; Stanley Kutler,
The Wars of Watergate: The Last Crisis of Richard Nixon
(New York, 1990); John Blum,
Years of Discord: Politics and Society
, 1961–1974 (New York, 1991), 421–75; and James Neuchterlein, "Watergate: Toward a Revisionist View,"
Commentary
, Aug. 1979, pp. 38–45.

2.
See Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.,
The Imperial Presidency
(Boston, 1973), for historical background.

3.
See Joan Hoff,
Nixon Reconsidered
(New York, 1994), 309–12, for discussion of a different theory for what happened at the Watergate complex—that the break-ins sought to uncover evidence about a call-girl ring that might embarrass the Democrats.

4.
Michael Beschloss,
The Crisis Years: Kennedy and Khrushchev
, 1960–1963 (New York, 1991), 135–37. CREEP may also have hoped to find out what O'Brien knew about Nixon's earlier decision to drop the government's anti-trust suit against ITT—a decision that O'Brien made much of in the campaign. Nixon had accepted large and secret campaign contributions from Hughes.