Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (158 page)

33.
M. Taylor Fravel,
Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China's Territorial Disputes
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2008), p. 217.

34.
DXPJW
, vol. 3.

35.
For an account of PLA lessons learned, see O'Dowd and Corbett, Jr., “The 1979 Chinese Campaign in Vietnam: Lessons Learned,” pp. 353–378.

36.
Senator Jackson visit on February 16, 1978 (communication from Dwight Perkins, who was part of the delegation, October 2010).

37.
O'Dowd, “The Last Maoist War,” p. 101.

38.
Zhang, “China's 1979 War with Vietnam,” pp. 867–888.

39.
O'Dowd, “The Last Maoist War,” pp. 179–184.

40.
Meeting with Vice President Mondale, August 27, 1979; Memcon, Summary of the Vice President's Meeting with People's Republic of China Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping, 8/27/79, vertical file, China, Jimmy Carter Library, Atlanta.

41.
See
SWDXP-2
, p. 90.

42.
He made such statements on many occasions; for example, on January 16, 1980, at a party center meeting of officials. See
DXPJW
, 3:165.

43.
Hua Huang,
Huang Hua Memoirs
(Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 2008), p. 294.

44.
Shen Zhihua, ed.,
Zhong Su guanxi shigang, 1917–1991
(A Historical Outline of Sino-Soviet Relations, 1917–1991) (Beijing: Xinhua chubanshe, 2007), pp. 406–407.

45.
Robert S. Ross,
Negotiating Cooperation: The United States and China, 1969–1989
(Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995), p. 172.

46.
Shen Zhihua,
Zhong Su guanxi shigang, 1917–1991
, p. 408.

47.
Ibid., pp. 408–411.

48.
SWDXP-2
, p. 242, January 16, 1980.

49.
Ibid., p. 284, March 12, 1980.

50.
Zhang Xingxing, “Zhongguo jundui dacaijun yu xin shiqi jingji jianshe” (The Great Reduction in Chinese Military and Economic Construction in the New Era),
Dangdai Zhongguo shi yanjiu
13, no. 1 (January 2006): 21–28; see also Huang,
Huang Hua Memoirs
, p. 291.

51.
As mentioned earlier, Deng was willing to take initiatives to reduce the risk of conflict but he still insisted that in order to resume full normal relations, the Soviet Union would have to leave Afghanistan and withdraw its troops near the Chinese border, and Vietnam would have to leave Cambodia. Conditions for this did not ripen until the late 1980s. See Qichen Qian,
Ten Episodes in China's Diplomacy
, foreword by Ezra Vogel (New York: HarperCollins, 2005), pp. 1–31.

52.
Ibid., pp. 13–14.

53.
Memcon, Summary of the Vice President's Meeting with People's Republic of China Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping, 8/27/79, vertical file, China, Jimmy Carter Library.

54.
Memcon, Secretary of Defense Harold Brown to the President, 1/8/80, National Security Archive, Brzezinski Material, Far East, Brown (Harold) Trip file, box 69, Jimmy Carter Library.

55.
Ibid.

56.
Memcon, Meeting between Secretary of Defense and Vice Premier Geng Biao, 5/29/80, National Security Archive, Brzezinski Material, Far East, Geng Biao Visit file, box 70, Jimmy Carter Library; Memcon, Meeting between Secretary of Defense Dr. Harold Brown and Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China, Geng Biao, 5/27/80, National Security Archive, Brzezinski Material, Far East, Geng Biao Visit file, box 70, Jimmy Carter Library; Memo, Brzezinski to Carter, Summary of Dr. Brzezinski's Conversation with Vice Premier Geng Biao of the People's Republic of China, 5/29/80, National Security Archive, Brzezinski Material, Far East, Geng Biao Visit file, box 70, Jimmy Carter Library.

57.
DXPJW
, 3:154–155, 168–174.

58.
Joffe,
The Chinese Army after Mao
, pp. 58–59.

59.
Ibid., pp. 60–61.

60.
Information Office, State Council,
2008 nian Zhongguo guofang
(Chinese National Defense in 2008) (Beijing: January 2009), appendix 5, at
http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2009-01/20/content_1210075.htm
, accessed April 9, 2011.

61.
William H. Overholt,
The Rise of China: How Economic Reform Is Creating a New Superpower
(New York: W.W. Norton, 1993), pp. 340–344.

62.
Robert J. Skebo, Gregory K. S. Man, and George H. Stevens, “Chinese Military Capabilities: Problems and Prospects,” in U.S. Congress, Joint Economic Committee,
China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s: The Problems of Reforms, Modernization and Interdependence
(Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1991 and Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1992), p. 665.

63.
Cheng Li and Scott Harold, “China's New Military Elite,”
China Security
3, no. 4 (Autumn 2007): 79. For a general work on political succession, see Michael D. Swaine,
The Military and Political Succession in China: Leadership, Institutions, Beliefs
(Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand, 1992). For an introduction to the importance of the field army connections, see the comprehensive early study by William W. Whitson, with Chen-hsia Huang,
The Chinese High Command: A History of Communist Military Politics, 1927–71
(New York: Praeger, 1973).

64.
Cheng Li and Lynn White, “The Army in the Succession to Deng Xiaoping: Familiar Fealties and Technocratic Trends,”
Asian Survey
33, no. 8 (August 1993): 772.

65.
Morton H. Halperin,
China and the Bomb
(New York, Praeger, 1965).

66.
Evan A. Feigenbaum,
China's Techno-Warriors: National Security and Strategic Competition from the Nuclear Age to the Information Age
(Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003).

67.
In 1975, however, Deng had to resolve factional fighting in the No. 7 Ministry of Machine Building that was responsible for missiles and the space industries. See ibid.; also
LZQ
, pp. 87–112.

68.
Feigenbaum,
China's Techno-Warriors.
For an account of Chinese behavior concerning its borders, see Fravel,
Strong Borders, Secure Nation.

69.
M. Taylor Fravel,
Active Defense: Exploring the Evolution of China's Military Strategy
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, forthcoming).

70.
Ellis Joffe, “People's War under Modern Conditions: A Doctrine for Modern War,”
The China Quarterly
, no. 112 (December 1987): 555–571; Harlan W. Jencks, “People's War under Modern Conditions: Wishful Thinking, National Suicide or Effective Deterrent?”
The China Quarterly
, no. 98 (June 1984): 305–319; Paul H. B. Godwin, “Mao Zedong Revisited: Deterrence and Defense in the 1980s,” in Godwin,
The Chinese Defense Establishment: Continuity and Change in the 1980s
, pp. 21–40. See also U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Intelligence and Research, “Chinese Military Reforms: Social and Political Implications,” Confidential Intelligence Report 1205-AR, December 6, 1985, available in DNSA.

71.
Joffe,
The Chinese Army after Mao
, pp. 85–86; Godwin, “Mao Zedong Revisited.”

72.
Joffe, “People's War under Modern Conditions,” 568–569; John Wilson Lewis and Litai Xue,
China's Strategic Seapower: The Politics of Force Modernization in the Nuclear Age
(Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1994); Alexander C. Huang, “The PLA Navy at War, 1949–1999: From Coastal Defense to Distant Operations,” in Ryan, Finkelstein, and McDevitt,
Chinese Warfighting
, pp. 241–269.

73.
DXPJW
, 3:161, July 29, 1979.

74.
Joffe, “People's War under Modern Conditions,” 565.

75.
The details of the programs to develop the nuclear-powered submarine and the submarine-launched ballistic missile are described in Lewis and Xue,
China's Strategic Seapower.

76.
SWDXP-2
, p. 132.

77.
Skebo, Man, and Stevens, “Chinese Military Capabilities: Problems and Prospects,” pp. 663–675.

78.
SWDXP-2
, p. 284, March 12, 1980.

79.
Ibid.

80.
DXPJW
, 3:179, October 15, 1980.

81.
SWDXP-2
, pp. 131–133.

82.
Zhang Xingxing, “Zhongguo jundui dacaijun yu xin shiqi jingji jianshe,” p. 7.

83.
Richard Baum,
Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 121–124.

84.
SWDXP-3
, pp. 104–105, November 1, 1984;
DXPNP-2
, p. 1012.

85.
SWDXP-2
, p. 285, March 12, 1980.

86.
Ibid. For a general account of military education during the 1980s, see William R. Heaton, “Professional Military Education in the People's Republic of China,” in Godwin,
The Chinese Defense Establishment
, pp. 121–137. Dennis J. Blasko, Philip T. Klapakis, and John F. Corbett, Jr., “Training Tomorrow's PLA: A Mixed Bag of Tricks,”
The China Quarterly
, no. 146 (June 1996): 488–524.

87.
DXPJW
, 3:130.

88.
Lewis and Xue,
China's Strategic Seapower
, p. 100.

89.
Mulvenon,
Soldiers of Fortune
, pp. 91–104.

90.
John Frankenstein and Bates Gill, “Current and Future Challenges Facing Chinese Defence Industries,”
The China Quarterly
, no. 146 (June 1996): 394–427.

91.
Tai Ming Cheung,
Fortifying China: The Struggle to Build a Modern Defense Economy
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2009), p. 76. See also Frankenstein and Gill, “Current and Future Challenges Facing Chinese Defence Industries,” 394–427.

92.
Cheung,
Fortifying China
, p. 57. The overall trends in this period are on
pp. 50–77. In fact, monitoring these activities, especially lower-level units, was difficult, so there are no precise figures.

93.
Ezra F. Vogel,
One Step Ahead in China: Guangdong under Reform
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989).

94.
Mulvenon,
Soldiers of Fortune
, pp. 59–63.

95.
Barry Naughton, “The Third Front: Defence Industrialization in China's Interior,”
The China Quarterly
, no. 115 (September 1988): 382.

96.
Ibid.; Cheung,
Fortifying China
, pp. 60–63.

97.
DXPNP-2
, June 28–29, 1978.

98.
Cheung,
Fortifying China
, pp. 52–100.

19. The Ebb and Flow of Politics

1.
SWDXP-2
, p. 326.

2.
Ming Ruan,
Deng Xiaoping: Chronicle of an Empire
(Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994), pp. 93–94.

3.
Zheng Zhongbing, ed.,
Hu Yaobang nianpu ziliao changbian
(Materials for a Chronological Record of Hu Yaobang's Life), 2 vols. (Hong Kong: Shidai guoji chuban youxian gongsi, 2005), September 24, 1980, 1:497.

4.
Ruan,
Deng Xiaoping
, pp. 91–103; “Implement the Policy of Readjustment, Ensure Stability and Unity,”
SWDXP-2
, pp. 350–368.

5.
SWDXP-2
, p. 320. For background on this issue and its implementation, see Melanie Manion,
Retirement of Revolutionaries in China: Public Policies, Social Norms, Private Interests
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. pp. 48–49.